This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 10400 including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction, and Conference Committee listing.

The WFIRST mission was originally ended as a wide-field survey facility. With the change to a 2.4-m telescope, the mission is capable of carrying an effective coronagraph for exoplanet imaging. The baseline architecture allows use of a hybrid lyot or shaped pupil coronagraph, feeding a imager and integral field spectrograph. This will allow imaging and photometry of mature nearby planets and zodiacal disks in reflected light, as well as spectroscopy of the brightest targets. I will discuss the scientific motivations of the mission and show simulated science capabilities, and discuss the process towards definition of a science mission.

The WFIRST Coronagraph Instrument will perform direct imaging of exoplanets via coronagraphy of the host star. It uses both the Hybrid Lyot and Shaped Pupil Coronagraphs to meet the mission requirements. The Phase A optical design fits within the allocated instrument enclosure and accommodates both coronagraphic techniques. It also meets the challenging wavefront error requirements. We present the optical performance including throughput of the imaging and IFS channels, as well as the wavefront errors at the first pupil and the imaging channel. We also present polarization effects from optical coatings and analysis of their impacts on the performance of the Hybrid Lyot coronagraph. We report the results of stray light analysis of our Occulting Mask Coronagraph testbed.

End-to-end numerical optical modeling of the WFIRST coronagraph incorporating wavefront sensing and control is used to determine the performance of the coronagraph with realistic errors, including pointing jitter and polarization. We present the performance estimates of the current flight designs as predicted by modeling. We also describe the release of a new version of the PROPER optical propagation library, our primary modeling tool, which is now available for Python and Matlab in addition to IDL.

NASA’s WFIRST mission includes a coronagraph instrument (CGI) for direct imaging of exoplanets. Significant improvement in CGI model fidelity has been made recently, alongside a testbed high contrast demonstration in a simulated dynamic environment at JPL. We present our modeling method and results of comparisons to testbed’s high order wavefront correction performance for the shaped pupil coronagraph. Agreement between model prediction and testbed result at better than a factor of 2 has been consistently achieved in raw contrast (contrast floor, chromaticity, and convergence), and with that comes good agreement in contrast sensitivity to wavefront perturbations and mask lateral shear.

The WFIRST/AFTA 2.4 m space telescope currently under study includes a stellar coronagraph for the imaging and the spectral characterization of extrasolar planets. The coronagraph employs sequential deformable mirrors to compensate for phase and amplitude errors. Using the optical model of an Occulting Mask Coronagraph (OMC) testbed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), we have investigated the sensitivity of a Hybrid Lyot Coronagraph (HLC) broadband contrast performance to DM actuator errors and actuator limits. Considered case include drifts in actuator gains or actuator response curves, paired actuators, as well as the limits imposed by a neighboring-actuator rule. Actual data about the actuator drifts and the knowledge about the paired-actuators obtained in several DM characterization experiments conducted at JPL, as well as the neighboring-actuator rule implemented on the OMC testbed were used in simulations. We obtained good agreement between the model prediction and the testbed measurement in terms of static HLC contrast floor and contrast chromaticity.

The WFIRST coronagraph, currently in the design phase, will make possible for the first time the direct imaging of exoplanets down to Jupiters. The main technical challenge in direct detection comes from three areas: starlight suppression, low flux detection, and speckle stabilization in the dark zone where the planet or disk light is to be detected. These three aspects in turn place requirements on key instrument parameters such as system throughput, raw contrast and detector effects. The link between instrument limitations and instrument performance is captured in models, and balanced using error budgets. Instrument performance can be measured in terms of the science yield, which is itself limited by available mission time and the instrument sensitivity floor. In this paper, we present an overview of the modeling and methodology to assess the sensitivity of the coronagraph and some of the key results pertaining to the WFIRST coronagraph.

We have developed an automated software pipeline to perform Structural-Thermal-Optical Performance (STOP) analysis of the WFIRST coronagraph. The Coronagraph Instrument on the Wide Field InfraRed Survey Telescope (WFIRST) will search for exoplanets by controlling the diffraction of the host star light in order to suppress it and allow the planet light to become observable. Since the planet light is billions of times dimmer than the star light, precise control of the light is challenging and susceptible to even minute imperfections such as thermally induced deformations of the optics. The observatory STOP analysis is used to assess the impact of such perturbations. The pipeline integrates the thermal, structural, and optical analysis software to run a STOP analysis in a seamless manner, with the final output being optical wave-front errors for an input observational scenario. The pipeline is written in the Python high level language and uses the Luigi framework for dependency resolution, workload management, and visualization. The initial version uses Thermal Desktop for thermal analysis, NX NASTRAN for structural analysis, SigFit for optical surface fitting, and CODE V for optical analysis. The pipeline can be easily customized using configuration files and provides users with a web interface to monitor the submitted job. This paper will present results showing how the pipeline can be used to simulate different observational scenarios to generate optical wave-front errors. Which in turn are propagated through simulated WFIRST coronagraph optical system to generate realistic speckle patterns.

One of the key science goals of the Coronograph Instrument (CGI) on the WFIRST mission is to spectrally characterize the atmospheres of planets around other stars at extremely high contrast levels. To achieve this goal, the CGI instrument will include a integral field spectrograph (IFS) as one of the two science cameras. We present the current science requirements that pertain to the IFS design, describe how our design implementation flows from these requirements, and outline our current instrument design.

Based on the experience from Prototype Imaging Spectrograph for Coronagraphic Exoplanet Studies (PISCES) for WFIRST, we have moved to the flight instrument design phase. The flight instrument is similar to PISCES, but there are important changes to its design as our requirements have evolved. Beginning with the science and system requirements, we discuss a number of critical trade-offs. Most significantly there are trades in the type of IFS, lenslet array shape and layout, detector sampling, and accommodating the larger Field Of View (FOV) and wider wavelength band for a potential Starshade. Finally, the traditional geometric optical design is also investigated and traded. We compare a reflective versus refractive design, and the telecentricity of the relay. The relay before the lenslet array controls the chief angle distribution on the lenslet array. Our previous paper1 has addressed how the relay design combined with lenslet array/pinhole mask can further suppress the residual star light and increase the contrast. Highlighting all of these design trades, we present the phase A IFS optical design for the WFIRST coronagraph instrument.

A primary goal of direct imaging techniques is to spectrally characterize the atmospheres of planets around other stars at extremely high contrast levels. To achieve this goal, coronagraphic instruments have favored integral field spectrographs (IFS) as the science cameras to disperse the entire search area at once and obtain spectra at each location, since the planet position is not known a priori. These spectrographs are useful against confusion from speckles and background objects, and can also help in the speckle subtraction and wavefront control stages of the coronagraphic observation. We present a software package, the Coronagraph and Rapid Imaging Spectrograph in Python (crispy) to simulate the IFS of the WFIRST Coronagraph Instrument (CGI). The software propagates input science cubes using spatially and spectrally resolved coronagraphic focal plane cubes, transforms them into IFS detector maps and ultimately reconstructs the spatio-spectral input scene as a 3D datacube. Simulated IFS cubes can be used to test data extraction techniques, refine sensitivity analyses and carry out design trade studies of the flight CGI-IFS instrument. crispy is a publicly available Python package and can be adapted to other IFS designs.

NASA WFIRST mission has planned to include a coronagraph instrument to find and characterize exoplanets. Masks are needed to suppress the host star light to better than 10^-8 – 10^-9 level contrast over a broad bandwidth to enable the coronagraph mission objectives. Such masks for high contrast coronagraphic imaging require various fabrication technologies to meet a wide range of specifications, including precise shapes, micron scale island features, ultra-low reflectivity regions, uniformity, wave front quality, etc. We present the technologies employed at JPL to produce these pupil plane and image plane coronagraph masks, and lab-scale external occulter masks, highlighting accomplishments from the high contrast imaging testbed (HCIT) at JPL and from the high contrast imaging lab (HCIL) at Princeton University. Inherent systematic and random errors in fabrication and their impact on coronagraph performance are discussed with model predictions and measurements.

To maintain the required performance of WFIRST Coronagraph in a realistic space environment, a Low Order Wavefront Sensing and Control (LOWFS/C) subsystem is necessary. The LOWFS/C uses a Zernike wavefront sensor (ZWFS) with the phase shifting disk combined with the starlight rejecting occulting mask. For wavefront error corrections, WFIRST LOWFS/C uses a fast steering mirror (FSM) for line-of-sight (LoS) correction, a focusing mirror for focus drift correction, and one of the two deformable mirrors (DM) for other low order wavefront error (WFE) correction. As a part of technology development and demonstration for WFIRST Coronagraph, a dedicated Occulting Mask Coronagraph (OMC) testbed has been built and commissioned. With its configuration similar to the WFIRST flight coronagraph instrument the OMC testbed consists of two coronagraph modes, Shaped Pupil Coronagraph (SPC) and Hybrid Lyot Coronagraph (HLC), a low order wavefront sensor (LOWFS), and an optical telescope assembly (OTA) simulator which can generate realistic LoS drift and jitter as well as low order wavefront error that would be induced by the WFIRST telescope’s vibration and thermal changes. In this paper, we will introduce the concept of WFIRST LOWFS/C, describe the OMC testbed, and present the testbed results of LOWFS sensor performance. We will also present our recent results from the dynamic coronagraph tests in which we have demonstrated of using LOWFS/C to maintain the coronagraph contrast with the presence of WFIRST-like line-of-sight and low order wavefront disturbances.

The Shaped Pupil Coronagraph (SPC) is one of the two operating modes of the WFIRST coronagraph instrument. The SPC provides starlight suppression in a pair of wedge-shaped regions over an 18% bandpass, and is well suited for spectroscopy of known exoplanets. To demonstrate this starlight suppression in the presence of expected onorbit input wavefront disturbances, we have recently built a dynamic testbed at JPL analogous to the WFIRST flight instrument architecture, with both Hybrid Lyot Coronagraph (HLC) and SPC architectures and a Low Order Wavefront Sensing and Control (LOWFS/C) subsystem to apply, sense, and correct dynamic wavefront disturbances. We present our best up-to-date results of the SPC mode demonstration from the testbed, in both static and dynamic conditions, along with model comparisons. HLC results will be reported separately.

Hybrid Lyot Coronagraph (HLC) is one of the two operating modes of the Wide-Field InfraRed Survey Telescope (WFIRST) coronagraph instrument. Since being selected by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in December 2013, the coronagraph technology is being matured to Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 6 by 2018. To demonstrate starlight suppression in presence of expecting on-orbit input wavefront disturbances, we have built a dynamic testbed in Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 2016. This testbed, named as Occulting Mask Coronagraph (OMC) testbed, is designed analogous to the WFIRST flight instrument architecture: It has both HLC and Shape Pupil Coronagraph (SPC) architectures, and also has the Low Order Wavefront Sensing and Control (LOWFS/C) subsystem to sense and correct the dynamic wavefront disturbances. We present upto-date progress of HLC mode demonstration in the OMC testbed. SPC results will be reported separately. We inject the flight-like Line of Sight (LoS) and Wavefront Error (WFE) perturbation to the OMC testbed and demonstrate wavefront control using two deformable mirrors while the LOWFS/C is correcting those perturbation in our vacuum testbed. As a result, we obtain repeatable convergence below 5 × 10⁻⁹ mean contrast with 10% broadband light centered at 550 nm in the 360 degrees dark hole with working angle between 3 λ/D and 9 λ/D. We present the key hardware and software used in the testbed, the performance results and their comparison to model expectations.

The increasing complexity of the aperture geometry of the future space- and ground based-telescopes will limit the performance of the next generation of coronagraphic instruments for high contrast imaging of exoplanets. We propose here a new closed-loop optimization technique using two deformable mirrors to correct for the effects of complex apertures on coronagraph performance, alternative to the ACAD technique previously developed by our group. This technique, ACAD-OSM, allows the use of any coronagraphs designed for continuous apertures, with complex, segmented, apertures, maintaining high performance in contrast and throughput. We show the capabilities of this technique on several pupil geometries (segmented LUVOIR type aperture, WFIRST, ELTs) for which we obtained high contrast levels with several deformable mirror setups (size, number of actuators, separation between them), coronagraphs (apodized pupil Lyot and vortex coronagraphs) and spectral bandwidths, which will help us present recommendations for future coronagraphic instruments. We show that this active technique handles, without any revision to the algorithm, changing or unknown optical aberrations or discontinuities in the pupil, including optical design misalignments, missing segments and phase errors.

The goal of directly imaging Earth-like planets in the habitable zone of other stars has motivated the design of coronagraphs for use with large segmented aperture space telescopes. In order to achieve an optimal trade-off between planet light throughput and diffracted starlight suppression, we consider coronagraphs comprised of a stage of phase control implemented with deformable mirrors (or other optical elements), pupil plane apodization masks (gray scale or complex valued), and focal plane masks (either amplitude only or complex-valued, including phase only such as the vector vortex coronagraph). The optimization of these optical elements, with the goal of achieving 10 or more orders of magnitude in the suppression of on-axis (starlight) diffracted light, represents a challenging non-convex optimization problem with a nonlinear dependence on control degrees of freedom. We develop a new algorithmic approach to the design optimization problem, which we call the ”Auxiliary Field Optimization” (AFO) algorithm. The central idea of the algorithm is to embed the original optimization problem, for either phase or amplitude (apodization) in various planes of the coronagraph, into a problem containing additional degrees of freedom, specifically fictitious ”auxiliary” electric fields which serve as targets to inform the variation of our phase or amplitude parameters leading to good feasible designs. We present the algorithm, discuss details of its numerical implementation, and prove convergence to local minima of the objective function (here taken to be the intensity of the on-axis source in a ”dark hole” region in the science focal plane). Finally, we present results showing application of the algorithm to both unobscured off-axis and obscured on-axis segmented telescope aperture designs. The application of the AFO algorithm to the coronagraph design problem has produced solutions which are capable of directly imaging planets in the habitable zone, provided end-to-end telescope system stability requirements can be met. Ongoing work includes advances of the AFO algorithm reported here to design in additional robustness to a resolved star, and other phase or amplitude aberrations to be encountered in a real segmented aperture space telescope.

The detection of molecular species in the atmospheres of earth-like exoplanets orbiting nearby stars requires an optical system that suppresses starlight and maximizes the sensitivity to the weak planet signals at small angular separations. Achieving sufficient contrast performance on a segmented aperture space telescope is particularly challenging due to unwanted diffraction within the telescope from amplitude and phase discontinuities in the pupil. Apodized vortex coronagraphs are a promising solution that theoretically meet the performance needs for high contrast imaging with future segmented space telescopes. We investigate the sensitivity of apodized vortex coronagraphs to the expected aberrations, including segment co-phasing errors in piston and tip/tilt as well as other low-order and mid-spatial frequency aberrations. Coronagraph designs and their associated telescope requirements are identified for conceptual HabEx and LUVOIR telescope designs.

High contrast imaging of exoplanets around nearby stars with future large segmented apertures requires starlight suppression systems optimized for such geometries, with the ability to control diffraction created by gaps between segments. The PIAACMC approach is well-suited for high high efficiency coronagraphic imaging of exoplanets at small angular separations, offering an inner working angle (IWA) as small as 1 lambda/D. We show that PIAACMC can be designed for segmented apertures and present a few representative designs. The design process can mitigate leaks due to stellar angular size and chromatic diffraction by segment gaps by co-optimizing a multi-zone diffractive focal plane mask and a Lyot stop. The resulting performance is ultimately limited by stellar angular size, and the IWA must be carefully traded against contrast and throughput at small angular separations. We show that PIAACMC's small IWA enables space-based near-IR imaging and spectroscopy of exoplanets around Sun-stars, and ground-based imaging and characterization of habitable planets around nearby M-type stars. We review the current status of PIAACMC laboratory development and near-term prospects for ground-based use.

Segmented telescopes enable large-aperture space telescopes for the direct imaging and spectroscopy of habitable worlds. However, the increased complexity of their aperture geometry, due to their central obstruction, support structures, and segment gaps, makes high-contrast imaging very challenging. In this context, we present an analytical model that will enable to establish a comprehensive error budget to evaluate the constraints on the segments and the influence of the error terms on the final image and contrast. Indeed, the target contrast of 10¹⁰ to image Earth-like planets requires drastic conditions, both in term of segment alignment and telescope stability. Despite space telescopes evolving in a more friendly environment than ground-based telescopes, remaining vibrations and resonant modes on the segments can still deteriorate the contrast. In this communication, we develop and validate the analytical model, and compare its outputs to images issued from end-to-end simulations.

Complex-mask coronagraphs destructively interfere unwanted starlight with itself to enable direct imaging of exoplanets. This is accomplished using a focal plane mask (FPM); a FPM can be a simple occulter mask, or in the case of a complex-mask, is a multi-zoned device designed to phase-shift starlight over multiple wavelengths to create a deep achromatic null in the stellar point spread function. Creating these masks requires microfabrication techniques, yet many such methods remain largely unexplored in this context. We explore methods of fabrication of complex FPMs for a Phased-Induced Amplitude Apodization Complex-Mask Coronagraph (PIAACMC). Previous FPM fabrication efforts for PIAACMC have concentrated on mask manufacturability while modeling science yield, as well as assessing broadband wavelength operation. Moreover current fabrication efforts are concentrated on assessing coronagraph performance given a single approach. We present FPMs fabricated using several process paths, including deep reactive ion etching and focused ion beam etching using a silicon substrate. The characteristic size of the mask features is 5μm with depths ranging over 1μm. The masks are characterized for manufacturing quality using an optical interferometer and a scanning electron microscope. Initial testing is performed at the Subaru Extreme Adaptive Optics testbed, providing a baseline for future experiments to determine and improve coronagraph performance within fabrication tolerances.

NASA’s WFIRST Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) is planned to image and characterize exoplanets at high contrast. The CGI operating modes are the hybrid Lyot coronagraph for planet detection and inner debris disk imaging, a shaped pupil coronagraph for planet characterization, and another shaped pupil for outer disk imaging. Early CGI designs focused on overcoming the diffraction of the large pupil obscurations. Now that those designs have been proven to work in the lab, the design emphasis has been on achieving higher throughput and lower sensitivities to jitter and polarization aberrations. Here we present those improvements and the integration of science yield modeling into the spectrographic shaped pupil design process.

The Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) is a 2.4m diameter space telescope NASA program. The payload will include a coronagraph instrument (CGI). The CGI designs under development use deformable mirrors (DM) to create a point spread function (PSF) with a dark region around the obscured star object. Electric field conjugation (EFC) is an iterative nonlinear optimization procedure that uses measurements of the electric field at the image to determine the DM displacements that modify the PSF to create the region of high contrast in the image. EFC requires a numerical model of the coronagraph to calculate the Jacobian of the system, which is used, along with regularization, to solve for the DM displacements for each iteration of the nonlinear optimization. Ideally, the coronagraph is aligned and calibrated, and the calibration data are used in the numerical model for calculating the Jacobian. However, calibration and alignment measurements always contain uncertainty resulting in calibration error. Therefore, the Jacobian calculated from the numerical model is not an exact representation of the physical coronagraph, and the resulting DM solution for an EFC iteration does not have the exact impact on the electric field of the coronagraph as predicted by the EFC. The result is slow convergence, and, as will be shown, the necessity of more restrictive regularization. Using Monte Carlo trials, we investigate the effect of calibration error on EFC convergence and regularization. Comparison to results from the High Contrast Imaging Testbed Hybrid Lyot Coronagraph are also presented.

Direct Imaging of exoplanets using a coronagraph has become a major field of research both on the ground and in space. Key to the science of direct imaging is the spectroscopic capabilities of the instrument, our ability to fit spectra, and understanding the composition of the observed planets. Direct imaging instruments generally use an integral field spectrograph (IFS), which encodes the spectrum into a two-dimensional image on the detector. This results in more efficient detection and characterization of targets, and the spectral information is critical to achieving detection limits below the speckle floor of the imager. The most mature application of these techniques is at more modest contrast ratios on ground-based telescopes, achieving approximately 5-6 orders of magnitude suppression. In space, where we are attempting to detect Earth-analogs, the contrast requirements are more severe and the IFS must be incorporated into the wavefront control loop to reach 1e-10 detection limits required for Earth-like planet detection. We present the objectives and application of IFS imagery for both a speckle control loop and post-processing of images. Results, tested methodologies, and the future work using the Coronagraphic High Angular Resolution Imaging Spectrograph (CHARIS) and the Prototype Imaging Spectrograph for Coronagraphic Exoplanet Studies (PISCES) at the JPL High Contrast Imaging Testbed are presented.

All coronagraphs for exoplanet high-contrast imaging employ wavefront estimation and control systems to reject system aberrations and create sufficiently dark holes. Currently at Princeton and JPL, two control schemes are being employed: electric field conjugation (EFC) and stroke minimization. Both of them are based on a linearized state transition model and both have achieved great success over the past decade. In this paper, we develop a general framework for the control system and improve upon the robustness of wavefront controllers from the perspective of stochastic optimization. We start by analyzing the model uncertainty and reformulating the wavefront control as a stochastic optimization problem. Then, we apply this idea to a recently proposed linear constraint wavefront controller and develop a robust version. According to the numerical simulations, the robust linear controller reveals the potential for creating more uniform dark holes. In experiment, the robust linear controller achieves at least as good performance as Electric Field Conjugation (EFC) and stroke minimization.

Space telescopes equipped with a coronagraph to detect and characterize exoplanets must have the ability to sense and control low-order wavefront aberrations. The line-of-sight (LoS) pointing error due to telecope jitter causes image quality (contrast) degradation, so it must be estimated and compensated for. The LoS pointing error caused by the attitude control system (ACS) and the forces and residual unbalanced momentum from the reaction wheels (RWs) should be estimated and controlled to sub-milliarcsecond (mas) level. The largest errors are due to the RWs’ disturbance and are harmonic in nature. Current LoS estimation and control techniques use the frequency information from tachometer readings as inputs to estimate the LoS pointing error. Inaccuracies in the tachometer readings lead to erroneous estimations and less-effective control. In this paper, we propose a new adaptive technique where we use the low-order wavefront sensor (LOWFS) camera measurements to determine the system parameters and the LoS pointing error, hence removing the dependency of the LoS pointing error estimation on accuracy of the tachometer readings. We present the simulation results where we could estimate and control the LoS pointing error to 0.04 mas.

Obstructions due to large secondary mirrors, primary mirror segmentation, and secondary mirror support struts all introduce diffraction artifacts that limit the performance offered by coronagraphs. However, just as vortex coronagraphs provides theoretically ideal cancellation of on-axis starlight for clear apertures, the Polynomial Apodized Vortex Coronagraph (PAVC) completely blocks on-axis light for apertures with central obscurations, and delivers off-axis throughput that improves as the topological charge of the vortex increases. We examine the sensitivity of PAVC designs to tip/tilt aberrations and stellar angular size, and discuss methods for mitigating these effects. By imposing additional constraints on the pupil plane apodization, we decrease the sensitivity of the PAVC to the small positional shifts of the on-axis source induced by either tip/tilt or stellar angular size; providing a route to overcoming an important hurdle facing the performance of vortex coronagraphs on telescopes with complicated pupils.

The direct-write technology for liquid-crystal patterns allows for manufacturing of extreme geometric phase patterned coronagraphs that are inherently broadband, e.g. the vector Apodizing Phase Plate (vAPP). We present on-sky data of a double-grating vAPP operating from 2-5 μm with a 360-degree dark hole and a decreased leakage term of ∼ 10⁻⁴ . We report a new liquid-crystal design used in a grating-vAPP for SCExAO that operates from 1-2.5μm. Furthermore, we present wavelength-selective vAPPs that work at specific wavelength ranges and transmit light unapodized at other wavelengths. Lastly, we present geometric phase patterns for advanced implementations of WFS (e.g. Zernike-type) that are enabled only by this liquid-crystal technology.

Direct observations of exoplanets require a stellar coronagraph to suppress the diffracted starlight. An Apodizing Phase Plate (APP) coronagraph consists of a carefully designed phase-only mask in the pupil plane of the telescope. This mask alters the point spread function in such a way that it contains a dark zone at some off-axis region of interest, while still retaining a high Strehl ratio (and therefore high planet throughput). Although many methods for designing such a phase mask exist, none of them provide a guarantee of global optimality. Here we present a method based on generalization of the phase-only mask to a complex amplitude mask. Maximizing the Strehl ratio while simultaneously constraining the stellar intensity in the dark zone turns out to be a quadratically constrained linear algorithm, for which a global optimum can be found using large-scale numerical optimizers. This generalized problem yields phase-only solutions. These solutions are therefore also solutions of the original problem. Using this optimizer we perform parameter studies on the inner and outer working angle, the contrast and the size of the secondary obscuration of the telescope aperture for both one-sided and annular dark zones. We reach Strehl ratios of > 65% for a 10⁻⁵ contrast from 1.8 to 10λ/D with a one-sided dark zone for a VLT-like secondary obscuration. This study provides guidelines for designing APPs for more realistic apertures.

We present the continued progress and laboratory results advancing the technology readiness of Multi-Star Wavefront Control (MSWC), a method to directly image planets and disks in multi-star systems such as Alpha Centauri. This method works with almost any coronagraph (or external occulter with a DM) and requires little or no change to existing and mature hardware. In particular, it works with single-star coronagraphs and does not require the off-axis star(s) to be coronagraphically suppressed. Because of the ubiquity of multistar systems, this method increases the science yield of many missions and concepts such as WFIRST, Exo-C/S, HabEx, LUVOIR, and potentially enables the detection of Earthlike planets (if they exist) around our nearest neighbor star, Alpha Centauri, with a small and low-cost space telescope such as ACESat. Our lab demonstrations were conducted at the Ames Coronagraph Experiment (ACE) laboratory and show both the feasibility as well as the trade-offs involved in using MSWC. We show several simulations and laboratory tests at roughly TRL-3 corresponding to representative targets and missions, including Alpha Centauri with WFIRST. In particular, we demonstrate MSWC in Super-Nyquist mode, where the distance between the desired dark zone and the off-axis star is larger than the conventional (sub-Nyquist) control range of the DM. Our laboratory tests did not yet include a coronagraph, but did demonstrate significant speckle suppression from two independent light sources at sub- as well as super-Nyquist separations.

The High Contrast Spectroscopy Testbed for Segmented Telescopes (HCST) at Caltech is aimed at filling gaps in technology for future exoplanet imagers and providing the U.S. community with an academic facility to test components and techniques for high contrast imaging with future segmented ground-based telescope (TMT, E-ELT) and space-based telescopes (HabEx, LUVOIR). The HCST will be able to simulate segmented telescope geometries up to 1021 hexagonal segments and time-varying external wavefront disturbances. It also contains a wavefront corrector module based on two deformable mirrors followed by a classical 3-plane single-stage corona- graph (entrance apodizer, focal-plane mask, Lyot stop) and a science instrument. The back-end instrument will consist of an imaging detector and a high-resolution spectrograph, which is a unique feature of the HCST. The spectrograph instrument will utilize spectral information to characterize simulated planets at the photon-noise limit, measure the chromaticity of new optimized coronagraph and wavefront control concepts, and test the overall scientific functions of high-resolution spectrographs on future segmented telescopes.

Despite recent advances in high-contrast imaging techniques, high resolution spectroscopy for characterization of exoplanet atmospheres is still limited by our ability to suppress residual starlight speckles at the planet’s location. We have demonstrated a new concept for speckle nulling by injecting directly imaged planet light into a single-mode fiber, linking a high-contrast adaptively-corrected coronagraph to a high-resolution spectrograph (diffraction-limited or not). The restrictions on the incident electric field that will couple into the single-mode fiber give the adaptive optics system additional degrees of freedom to suppress the speckle noise on top of destructive interference. We are able to achieve a starlight suppression gains that are an order of magnitude better than conventional techniques in broadband light with minimal planet throughput losses.

A milestone in understanding life in the universe is the detection of biosignature gases in the atmospheres of habitable exoplanets. Future mission concepts under study by the 2020 decadal survey, e.g., HabEx and LUVOIR, have the potential of achieving this goal. We investigate the baseline requirements for detecting four molecular species, H₂O, O₂, CH₄, and CO₂. These molecules are highly relevant to habitability and life activity on Earth and other planets. Through numerical simulations, we find the minimum requirement for spectral resolution (R) and starlight suppression level (C) for a given exposure time. We consider scenarios in which different molecules are detected. For example, R = 6400 (400) and C = 5 × 10⁻¹⁰ (2 × 10⁻⁹ ) are required for HabEx (LUVOIR) to detect O₂ and H₂O for an exposure time of 400 hours for an Earth analog around a solar-type star at a distance of 5 pc. The full results are given in Table 2. The impact of exo-zodiacal contamination and thermal background is also discussed

The Planetary Imaging Concept Testbed Using a Recoverable Experiment - Coronagraph (PICTURE-C) mission will directly image debris disks and exozodiacal dust around nearby stars from a high-altitude balloon using a vector vortex coronagraph. Four leakage sources owing to the optical fabrication tolerances and optical coatings are: electric field conjugation (EFC) residuals, beam walk on the secondary and tertiary mirrors, optical surface scattering, and polarization aberration. Simulations and analysis of these four leakage sources for the PICTUREC optical design are presented here.

The development of compact, high performance Deformable Mirrors (DMs) is one of the most important technological challenges for high-contrast imaging on space missions. Microscale Inc. has fabricated and characterized piezoelectric stack actuator deformable mirrors (PZT-DMs) and Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) drivers for direct integration. The DM-ASIC system is designed to eliminate almost all cables, enabling a very compact optical system with low mass and low power consumption. We report on the optical tests used to evaluate the performance of the DM and ASIC units. We also compare the results to the requirements for space-based high-contrast imaging of exoplanets.

The Deformable Mirror Demonstration Mission (DeMi) was recently selected by DARPA to demonstrate in-space operation of a wavefront sensor and Microelectromechanical system (MEMS) deformable mirror (DM) payload on a 6U CubeSat. Space telescopes designed to make high-contrast observations using internal coronagraphs for direct characterization of exoplanets require the use of high-actuator density deformable mirrors. These DMs can correct image plane aberrations and speckles caused by imperfections, thermal distortions, and diffraction in the telescope and optics that would otherwise corrupt the wavefront and allow leaking starlight to contaminate coronagraphic images. DeMi is provide on-orbit demonstration and performance characterization of a MEMS deformable mirror and closed loop wavefront sensing. The DeMi payload has two operational modes, one mode that images an internal light source and another mode which uses an external aperture to images stars. Both the internal and external modes include image plane and pupil plane wavefront sensing. The objectives of the internal measurement of the 140-actuator MEMS DM actuator displacement are characterization of the mirror performance and demonstration of closed-loop correction of aberrations in the optical path. Using the external aperture to observe stars of magnitude 2 or brighter, assuming 3-axis stability with less than 0.1 degree of attitude knowledge and jitter below 10 arcsec RMSE, per observation, DeMi will also demonstrate closed loop wavefront control on an astrophysical target. We present an updated payload design, results from simulations and laboratory optical prototyping, as well as present our design for accommodating high-voltage multichannel drive electronics for the DM on a CubeSat.

The current generation of ground-based coronagraphic instruments uses deformable mirrors to correct for phase errors and to improve contrast levels at small angular separations. Improving these techniques, several space and ground based instruments are currently developed using two deformable mirrors to correct for both phase and amplitude errors. However, as wavefront control techniques improve, more complex telescope pupil geometries (support structures, segmentation) will soon be a limiting factor for these next generation coronagraphic instruments. In this paper we discuss fundamental limits associated with wavefront control with deformable mirrors in high contrast coronagraph. We start with an analytic prescription of wavefront errors, along with their wavelength dependence, and propagate them through coronagraph models. We then consider a few wavefront control architectures, number of deformable mirrors and their placement in the optical train of the instrument, and algorithms that can be used to cancel the starlight scattered by these wavefront errors over a finite bandpass. For each configuration we derive the residual contrast as a function of bandwidth and of the properties of the incoming wavefront. This result has consequences when setting the wavefront requirements, along with the wavefront control architecture of future high contrast instrument both from the ground and from space. In particular we show that these limits can severely affect the effective Outer Working Angle that can be achieved by a given coronagraph instrument.

Young giant exoplanets emit infrared radiation that can be linearly polarized up to several percent. This linear polarization can trace: 1) the presence of atmospheric cloud and haze layers, 2) spatial structure, e.g. cloud bands and rotational flattening, 3) the spin axis orientation and 4) particle sizes and cloud top pressure. We introduce a novel high-contrast imaging scheme that combines angular differential imaging (ADI) and accurate near-infrared polarimetry to characterize self-luminous giant exoplanets. We implemented this technique at VLT/SPHEREIRDIS and developed the corresponding observing strategies, the polarization calibration and the data-reduction approaches. The combination of ADI and polarimetry is challenging, because the field rotation required for ADI negatively affects the polarimetric performance. By combining ADI and polarimetry we can characterize planets that can be directly imaged with a very high signal-to-noise ratio. We use the IRDIS pupil-tracking mode and combine ADI and principal component analysis to reduce speckle noise. We take advantage of IRDIS’ dual-beam polarimetric mode to eliminate differential effects that severely limit the polarimetric sensitivity (flat-fielding errors, differential aberrations and seeing), and thus further suppress speckle noise. To correct for instrumental polarization effects, we apply a detailed Mueller matrix model that describes the telescope and instrument and that has an absolute polarimetric accuracy ≤ 0.1%. Using this technique we have observed the planets of HR 8799 and the (sub-stellar) companion PZ Tel B. Unfortunately, we do not detect a polarization signal in a first analysis. We estimate preliminary 1σ upper limits on the degree of linear polarization of ∼ 1% and ∼ 0.1% for the planets of HR 8799 and PZ Tel B, respectively. The achieved sub-percent sensitivity and accuracy show that our technique has great promise for characterizing exoplanets through direct-imaging polarimetry

One of the leading direct Imaging techniques, particularly in ground-based imaging, uses a coronagraphic system and integral field spectrograph (IFS). The Coronagraphic High Angular Resolution Imaging Spectrograph (CHARIS) is an IFS that has been built for the Subaru telescope. CHARIS has been delivered to the observatory and now sits behind the Subaru Coronagraphic Extreme Adaptive Optics (SCExAO) system. CHARIS has ‘high’ and ‘low’ resolution operating modes. The high-resolution mode is used to characterize targets in J, H, and K bands at R70. The low-resolution prism is meant for discovery and spans J+H+K bands (1.15-2.37 microns) with a spectral resolution of R18. This discovery mode has already proven better than 15-sigma detections of HR8799c,d,e when combining ADI+SDI. Using SDI alone, planets c and d have been detected in a single 24 second image. The CHARIS team is optimizing instrument performance and refining ADI+SDI recombination to maximize our contrast detection limit. In addition to the new observing modes, CHARIS has demonstrated a design with high robustness to spectral crosstalk. CHARIS has completed commissioning and is open for science observations.

The SCExAO system is a flexible high contrast imaging platform for exoplanet imaging on the 8-m Subaru Telescope. SCExAO's wavefront control architecture relies on both visible and infrared wavefront sensors to measure, correct and calibrate wavefront errors. The wavefront control loop, optimized for high contrast imaging, includes predictive control, sensor fusion and focal plane speckle control to address the performance limits of current extreme-AO systems: non-common path errors, time-lag and chromaticity. The control software is also designed to enable rapid prototyping of new wavefront algorithm, as one goal of the SCExAO project is to explore and validate new high contrast imaging approaches to guide the design of future ELT high contrast imaging systems. We describe the SCExAO wavefront control architecture and its software implementation. Recent on-sky results are presented, and future steps are describted. Current and future high contrast imaging performance are provided. We discuss findings (lessons learned) in the context of future exoplanet imaging instrument developments.

Since 1st light in 2002, HARPS has been setting the standard in the exo-planet detection by radial velocity (RV) measurements[1]. Based on this experience, our consortium is developing a high accuracy near-infrared RV spectrograph covering YJH bands to detect and characterize low-mass planets in the habitable zone of M dwarfs. It will allow RV measurements at the 1-m/s level and will look for habitable planets around M- type stars by following up the candidates found by the upcoming space missions TESS, CHEOPS and later PLATO. NIRPS and HARPS, working simultaneously on the ESO 3.6m are bound to become a single powerful high-resolution, high-fidelity spectrograph covering from 0.4 to 1.8 micron. NIRPS will complement HARPS in validating earth-like planets found around G and K-type stars whose signal is at the same order of magnitude than the stellar noise. Because at equal resolving power the overall dimensions of a spectrograph vary linearly with the input beam étendue, spectrograph designed for seeing-limited observations are large and expensive. NIRPS will use a high order adaptive optics system to couple the starlight into a fiber corresponding to 0.4” on the sky as efficiently or better than HARPS or ESPRESSO couple the light 0.9” fiber. This allows the spectrograph to be very compact, more thermally stable and less costly. Using a custom tan(θ)=4 dispersion grating in combination with a start-of-the-art Hawaii4RG detector makes NIRPS very efficient with complete coverage of the YJH bands at 110’000 resolution. NIRPS works in a regime that is in-between the usual multi-mode (MM) where 1000’s of modes propagates in the fiber and the single mode well suited for perfect optical systems. This regime called few-modes regime is prone to modal noise- Results from a significant R and D effort made to characterize and circumvent the modal noise show that this contribution to the performance budget shall not preclude the RV performance to be achieved.

Starshades are a leading technology to enable the direct detection and spectroscopic characterization of Earth-like exoplanets. Two key aspects to advancing starshade technology are the demonstration of starlight suppression to the level required for flight and validation of optical models at this high level of suppression. These technologies are addressed in current efforts underway at the Princeton Starshade Testbed. We report on results from modeling the performance of the Princeton Starshade Testbed to help achieve the milestone 10⁻⁹ suppression. We use our optical model to examine the effects that errors in the occulting mask shape and external environmental factors have on the limiting suppression. We look at deviations from the ideal occulter shape such as over-etching during the lithography process, edge roughness of the mask, and random defects introduced during manufacturing. We also look at the effects of dust and wavefront errors in the open-to-atmosphere testbed. These results are used to set fabrication requirements on the starshade and constraints on the testbed environment. We use detailed measurements of the manufactured occulting mask to converge towards agreement between our modeled performance predictions and the suppression measured in the testbed, thereby building confidence in the validity of the optical models. We conclude with a discussion of the advantages and practicalities of scaling to a larger testbed to further advance the optical aspect of starshade technology.

A starshade is a specially designed opaque screen to suppress starlight and remove the effects of diffraction at the edge. The intensity at the pupil plane in the shadow is dark enough to detect Earth-like exoplanets by using direct imaging. At Princeton, we have designed and built a testbed that allows verification of scaled starshade designs whose suppressed shadow is mathematically identical to that of space starshade. The starshade testbed uses a 77.2 m optical propagation distance to realize the flight Fresnel number of 14.5. Here, we present lab result of a revised sample design operating at a flight Fresnel number. We compare the experimental results with simulations that predict the ultimate contrast performance.

Starshades, large occulters positioned tens of thousands of kilometers in front of space telescopes, offer one of the few paths to imaging and characterizing Earth-like extrasolar planets. However, for a starshade to generate a sufficiently dark shadow on the telescope, the two must be coaligned to just 1 meter laterally, even at these large separations. The principal challenge to achieving this level of control is in determining the position of the starshade with respect to the space telescope. In this paper, we present numerical simulations and laboratory results demonstrating that a Zernike wavefront sensor coupled to a WFIRST-type telescope is able to deliver the stationkeeping precision required, by measuring light outside of the science wavelengths. The sensor can determine the starshade lateral position to centimeter level in seconds of open shutter time for stars brighter than eighth magnitude, with a capture range of 10 meters. We discuss the potential for fast (ms) tip/tilt pointing control at the milli-arcsecond level by illuminating the sensor with a laser mounted on the starshade. Finally, we present early laboratory results.

An external occulter for starlight suppression – a starshade – flying in formation with the Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission Concept (HabEx) space telescope could enable the direct imaging and spectrographic characterization of Earthlike exoplanets in the habitable zone. This starshade is flown between the telescope and the star, and suppresses stellar light sufficiently to allow the imaging of the faint reflected light of the planet. This paper presents a mechanical architecture for this occulter, which must stow in a 5 m-diameter launch fairing and then deploy to about a 80 m-diameter structure. The optical performance of the starshade requires that the edge profile is accurate and stable. The stowage and deployment of the starshade to meet these requirements present unique challenges that are addressed in this proposed architecture. The mechanical architecture consists of a number of petals attached to a deployable perimeter truss, which is connected to central hub using tensioned spokes. The petals are furled around the stowed perimeter truss for launch. Herein is described a mechanical design solution that supports an 80 m-class starshade for flight as part of HabEx.

We explore the capabilities of a starshade mission to directly image multi-star systems. In addition to the diffracted and scattered light for the on-axis star, a multi-star system features additional starlight leakage from the off-axis star that must also be controlled. A basic option is for additional starshades to block the off- axis stars. An interesting option takes the form of hybrid operation of a starshade in conjunction with an internal starlight suppression. Two hybrid scenarios are considered. One such scenario includes the coronagraph instrument blocking the on-axis star, with the starshade blocking off-axis starlight. Another scenario uses the wavefront control system in the coronagraph instrument and using a recent Super-Nyquist Wavefront Control (SNWC) technique can remove the off-axis stars leakage to enable a region of high-contrast around the on-axis star blocked by the starshade. We present simulation results relevant for the WFIRST telescope.

The Gaia global astrometry mission is now entering its fourth year of routine science operations. With the publication of the first data release in September 2016, it has begun to fulfil its promise for revolutionary science in countless aspects of Galactic astronomy and astrophysics. I briefly review the Gaia mission status of operations and the scenario for the upcoming intermediate data releases, focusing on important lessons learned. Then, I illustrate the Gaia exoplanet science case, and discuss how the field will be revolutionized by the power of microarcsecond (μas) astrometry that is about to be unleashed. I conclude by touching upon some of the synergy elements that will call for combination of Gaia data with other indirect and direct detection and characterization techniques, for much improved understanding of exoplanetary systems.

The Theia mission, as a natural successor to Gaia, will be the first extremely-high-precision astrometric surveyor that may emerge from the last ESA M5 call in October 2016. A major objective of Theia in the context of this conference is the detection by astrometry of Earths and Super-Earths exoplanets in the habitable zone of nearby A to M stars. This can be done by astrometry from space if a motion of <1-microarcesec can be recorded (0.3 microarcsec for an Earth/Sun system at 10 pc). Such an accuracy can be reached by Theia in the form of an 0.8-m telescope with 0.5° FOV in orbit at L2 for 3,5 years and providing repeated differential astrometric measurements between the science target and background reference stars. The exoplanet program will use circa 10% of the mission lifetime and will be able to survey 63 nearby stars with a ~0.6 microarssec astrometric floor to eventually detect planets down to 0.2 M_earth over circa 50 visits. In order to measure a centroid position on the CCD with an accuracy of 1e-5 pixels, Theia’s high-precision measurement relies on an on-board interferometric laser metrology unit to calibrate out the pixel’s offset to the nominal position, as well as the inter- and intra-pixel quantum efficiency. The preliminary Theia mission assessment allowed us to identify a safe and robust mission architecture that demonstrates the mission feasibility within the Soyuz ST launch envelope and a small M-class mission cost cap. We present here these features and the corresponding exoplanet program.

Measuring masses of long-period planets around F, G, and K stars is necessary to characterize exoplanets and assess their habitability. Imaging stellar astrometry offers a unique opportunity to solve radial velocity system inclination ambiguity and determine exoplanet masses. The main limiting factor in sparse-field astrometry, besides photon noise, is the non-systematic dynamic distortions that arise from perturbations in the optical train. Even space optics suffer from dynamic distortions in the optical system at the sub-μas level. To overcome this limitation we propose a diffractive pupil that uses an array of dots on the primary mirror creating polychromatic diffraction spikes in the focal plane, which are used to calibrate the distortions in the optical system. By combining this technology with a high-performance coronagraph, measurements of planetary systems orbits and masses can be obtained faster and more accurately than by applying traditional techniques separately. In this paper, we present the results of the combined astrometry and and highcontrast imaging experiments performed at NASA Ames Research Center as part of a Technology Development for Exoplanet Missions program. We demonstrated 2.38x10^-5 λ/D astrometric accuracy per axis and 1.72x10^-7 raw contrast from 1.6 to 4.5 λ/D. In addition, using a simple average subtraction post-processing we demonstrated no contamination of the coronagraph field down to 4.79x10^-9 raw contrast.

In the era of large telescopes and RV/Transit planetary missions, nulling interferometry remains a competitive technique for the characterization of Earths and Super-earths around Sun analogs in the mid-IR (Léger 2015, ApJ 808, 194). This is a spectral range where a number of bio-signatures can be accessed from space. One challenge of nulling is to benefit from well-established and qualified infrared fibers and integrated optics capable of mitigating the instrumental constraints on the beam combination and wavefront filtering to reach high extinction ratios. Such photonics devices have reached high maturity in the near-IR range as in the case of the integrated optics (IO) beam combiner of GRAVITY at the VLTI, leading to unprecedented interferometric accuracy. Driven by the need of next-generation interferometers, we expand the photonic approach towards longer wavelengths and develop IO combiners based on the ultrafast laser writing technique. We developed single-mode, low-loss evanescent couplers in gallium lanthanum sulfide with a 50/50 splitting behavior around 3.4 µm and characterized the intrinsic chromaticity by FTS. High monochromatic and broadband contrasts are measured with unpolarized light at 3.39µm (>98%), over the L band (>95%), and over the M Band (4.5-4.8µm) (>95%). Our analysis of the interferometric visibilities and phase shows a small differential birefringence in the component and negligible differential dispersion. This results points out the promising properties of mid-infrared laser writing integrated optics devices to serve as high quality beam combiners. The extension to a four-aperture architecture appears plausible, with care to be taken about the impact of the design on the total throughput.

This work presents updates to the coronagraph and telescope components of the Segmented Aperture Interferometric Nulling Testbed (SAINT). The project pairs an actively-controlled macro-scale segmented mirror with the Visible Nulling Coronagraph (VNC) towards demonstrating capabilities for the future space observatories needed to directly detect and characterize a significant sample of Earth-sized worlds around nearby stars in the quest for identifying those which may be habitable and possibly harbor life. Efforts to improve the VNC wavefront control optics and mechanisms towards repeating narrowband results are described. A narrative is provided for the design of new optical components aimed at enabling broadband performance. Initial work with the hardware and software interface for controlling the segmented telescope mirror is also presented.

With the recent commissioning of ground instruments such as SPHERE or GPI and future space observatories like WFIRST-AFTA, coronagraphy should probably become the most efficient tool for identifying and characterizing extrasolar planets in the forthcoming years. Coronagraphic instruments such as Phase mask coronagraphs (PMC) are usually based on a phase mask or plate located at the telescope focal plane, spreading the starlight outside the diameter of a Lyot stop that blocks it. In this communication is investigated the capability of a PMC to act as a phase-shifting wavefront sensor for better control of the achieved star extinction ratio in presence of the coronagraphic mask. We discuss the two main implementations of the phase-shifting process, either introducing phase-shifts in a pupil plane and sensing intensity variations in an image plane, or reciprocally. Conceptual optical designs are described in both cases. Numerical simulations allow for better understanding of the performance and limitations of both options, and optimizing their fundamental parameters. In particular, they demonstrate that the phase-shifting process is a bit more efficient when implemented into an image plane, and is compatible with the most popular phase masks currently employed, i.e. fourquadrants and vortex phase masks.

EXOSIMS is an open-source simulation tool for parametric modeling of the detection yield and characterization of exoplanets. EXOSIMS has been adopted by the Exoplanet Exploration Programs Standards Definition and Evaluation Team (ExSDET) as a common mechanism for comparison of exoplanet mission concept studies. To ensure trustworthiness of the tool, we developed a validation test plan that leverages the Python-language unit-test framework, utilizes integration tests for selected module interactions, and performs end-to-end crossvalidation with other yield tools. This paper presents the test methods and results, with the physics-based tests such as photometry and integration time calculation treated in detail and the functional tests treated summarily. The test case utilized a 4m unobscured telescope with an idealized coronagraph and an exoplanet population from the IPAC radial velocity (RV) exoplanet catalog. The known RV planets were set at quadrature to allow deterministic validation of the calculation of physical parameters, such as working angle, photon counts and integration time. The observing keepout region was tested by generating plots and movies of the targets and the keepout zone over a year. Although the keepout integration test required the interpretation of a user, the test revealed problems in the L2 halo orbit and the parameterization of keepout applied to some solar system bodies, which the development team was able to address. The validation testing of EXOSIMS was performed iteratively with the developers of EXOSIMS and resulted in a more robust, stable, and trustworthy tool that the exoplanet community can use to simulate exoplanet direct-detection missions from probe class, to WFIRST, up to large mission concepts such as HabEx and LUVOIR.

In addition to the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope Coronagraphic Imager (WFIRST CGI), which is currently scheduled for launch in the mid 2020s, there is an extensive, ongoing design effort for next-generation, space-based, exoplanet imaging instrumentation. This work involves mission concepts such as the Large UV/ Optical/Infrared Surveyor (LUVOIR), the Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Misson (HabEx), and a starshade rendezvous mission for WFIRST, among others. While each of these efforts includes detailed mission analysis targeted at the specifics of each design, there is also interest in being able to analyze all such concepts in a unified way (to the extent that this is possible) and to draw specific comparisons between projected concept capabilities. Here, we discuss and compare two fundamental approaches to mission analysis, full mission simulation and depth of search analysis, in the specific context of simulating and comparing multiple different mission concepts. We present strategies for mission analysis at varying stages of concept definition, using WFIRST as a motivating example, and discuss useful metrics for cross-mission comparison, as well as strategies for evaluating these metrics.

Mawet et. al.¹ pointed out that at small inner working angle the detectability of planets can be significantly diminished due to small number statistics. We use this insight to develop a correction factor that can be applied to contrast curves to assess the impact of small sample statistics on planet detectability. This correction factor is independent of the coronagraph design. We use simulations of the PIAACMC design for WFIRST to assess the impact of small statistics on the detectability of a standard set of planets. We find that the impact depends strongly on the required detection significance threshold: while requiring the false positive fraction (FPF) corresponding to a 5σ detection threshold can reduce the number of detected planets by about half at very small inner working angles, requiring the FPF corresponding to a 3σ threshold reduces the number of detected planets by only about 15%. For current coronagraph designs, with somewhat larger inner working angles, the impact of small sample statistics is milder.

One of the most effective methods to subtract the PSF of the host star and other confounding noise sources from direct imaging observations is Principal Component Analysis. Common Spatial Pattern filtering is a method from the same class of algorithms as PCA. We examine CSP as an alternative algorithm for PSF subtraction. The underlying principles of CSP are discussed, as well as the processing steps needed to achieve PSF subtraction. Both CSP and PCA have been used on data from the Gemini Planet Imager, analyzing images of β Pic b. Preliminary results indicate that CSP achieves similar results as PCA.

Direct imaging of exoplanets has become a priority in the field of exoplanet discovery and characterization due to its ability to directly obtain evidence about a planet’s atmosphere and some bulk properties. Features such as atmospheric composition, structure and clouds are just some of the planetary properties obtainable from directly imaged spectra. However, detecting and observing spectra of exoplanets using direct imaging is challenging due to the combination of extreme star to planet contrast ratios and the relatively small apparent physical separation between a host star and an orbiting planet. Detection of Earth-sized planets in reflected visible light requires contrast ratios of 10¹⁰, while even detection of Jupiter-sized planets and large young self-luminous planets requires contrast ratios of 10⁸ and 10⁶, respectively. Consequently, direct detection of exoplanets requires observing strategies which push the boundaries of high contrast imaging. The use of coronagraphy to occult a host star has been combined with adaptive optics (AO) technology to yield a particularly promising means of potentially achieving the required contrast ratios in regions close-in enough to the host star. Ground based adaptive optics systems such as The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI)¹ and Spectro-Polarimetric High-contrast Exoplanet REsearch (SPHERE)² instrument have been able to achieve contrast ratios nearing 10⁷ using post-processing techniques^{3, 4} and have yielded a number of direct detections of young self-luminous planets. Advancing these technologies onto a space based platform immune to the difficulties posed by the effects of Earth’s atmosphere is the next step in accessing even larger contrast ratios.

The Evanescent Wave Coronagraph (EvWaCo) is a new kind of “band-limited coronagraph” that involves the tunneling effect to suppress the starlight, thus producing the coronagraphic effect. The first advantage is that this mask adapts itself to the wavelength due to the evanescent wave properties, yielding nearly an achromatization of the star extinction. The second advantage is that the starlight can be collected for astrometry and/or wavefront analysis and correction. NARIT has developed a specific optical setup operating over the spectral band [780 nm, 880nm] to demonstrate highlevel contrasts and inner working angles in line with the requirements for exoplanet detection. Our aims are: to test and characterize the EvWaCo performance in diffraction-limited regime, to install a simulator of turbulence and an adaptive optics setup to simulate ground-based observations, and to define the best scheme for the wavefront correction. The preliminary results obtained in diffraction-limited regime demonstrated contrasts equal to a few 10^-6 at a distance between 10 and 20 λ/D from the Point Spread Function (PSF) center with an unpolarized source emitting at λ₁ = 880 nm with a relative spectral bandwidth Δλ/λ₁ ≈ 6%. In this paper, we first describe the upgraded setup and present the results of the performance characterization that investigates the variation of the contrast with the wavelength and with the polarization. Then, we show the results obtained on the star channel and demonstrate the capability to measure in real time the star PSF profile and position. Finally, we discuss the future improvements to optimize the performance.

Direct imaging using a starshade is a powerful technique for exoplanet detection and characterization. No current post-processing methods are specialized for starshade images and the ones for coronagraph images have not been applied to images produced by a starshade system ( starshade system means the light sources, starshade and telescope). Here, we report on the first step towards adapting these methods for starshade systems. We have built a starshade imaging model. We generate the image based on a simulation of the real astronomical scene and consider the effects of various starshade defects, misalignment, wavefront error, and detector noise. Future work will add the system dynamics of formation flying between the starshade and the telescope. The ultimate goal is to adapt coronagraphic image processing methods for starshade imaging.

Starshades have been designed to work with large and small telescopes alike. With smaller telescopes, the targets tend to be brighter and closer to the Solar System, and their putative planetary systems span angles that require starshades with radii of 10-30 m at distances of 10s of Mm. With larger apertures, the light-collecting power enables studies of more numerous, fainter systems, requiring larger, more distant starshades with radii >50 m at distances of 100s of Mm. Characterization using infrared wavelengths requires even larger starshades. A mitigating approach is to observe planets between the petals, where one can observe regions closer to the star but with reduced throughput and increased instrument scatter. We compare the starshade shape requirements, including petal shape, petal positioning, and other key terms, for the WFIRST 26m starshade and the HABEX 72 m starshade concepts, over a range of working angles and telescope sizes. We also compare starshades having rippled and smooth edges and show that their performance is nearly identical.

The Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) mission, scheduled for launch in the mid-2020s will perform exoplanet science via both direct imaging and a microlensing survey. An internal coronagraph is planned to perform starlight suppression for exoplanet imaging, but an external starshade could be used to achieve the required high contrasts with potentially higher throughput. This approach would require a separately-launched occulter spacecraft to be positioned at exact distances from the telescope along the line of sight to a target star system. We present a detailed study to quantify the Δv requirements and feasibility of deploying this additional spacecraft as a means of exoplanet imaging. The primary focus of this study is the fuel use of the occulter while repositioning between targets. Based on its design, the occulter is given an offset distance from the nominal WFIRST halo orbit. Target star systems and look vectors are generated using Exoplanet Open-Source Imaging Simulator (EXOSIMS); a boundary value problem is then solved between successive targets. On average, 50 observations are achievable with randomly selected targets given a 30-day transfer time. Individual trajectories can be optimized for transfer time as well as fuel usage to be used in mission scheduling. Minimizing transfer time reduces the total mission time by up to 4.5 times in some simulations before expending the entire fuel budget. Minimizing Δv can generate starshade missions that achieve over 100 unique observations within the designated mission lifetime of WFIRST.

FOCES is a fiber-fed, stabilized high-resolution (R ∼ 70,000) spectrograph attached to the 2m Fraunhofer Telescope in Wendelstein Observatory. An optical, broad-band laser frequency comb with the repetition rate of 25 GHz is used as the wavelength calibration source to obtain the precise radial velocities. We describe our method of modelling the instrumental profiles. A Gaussian plus an empirical spline function are used to fit the line spread function (LSF). We also present the results of obtaining radial velocities from an overlap of stellar spectra and emission lines of the laser frequency comb.

The zodiacal light caused by interplanetary dust grains is the second-most luminous source in the solar system. The dust grains coalesce into structures reminiscent of early solar system formation; their composition has been predicted through simulations and some edge-on observations but better data is required to validate them. Scattered light from these dust grains presents challenges to exoplanet imaging missions: resolution of their stellar environment is hindered by exozodiacal emissions and therefore sets the size and scope of these imaging missions. Understanding the composition of this interplanetary dust in our solar system requires an imaging mission from a vantage point above the ecliptic plane. The high surface brightness of the zodiacal light requires only a small aperture with moderate sensitivity; therefore a 3cm camera is enough to meet the science goals of the mission at an orbital height of 0.1AU above the ecliptic. A 6U CubeSat is the target mass for this mission which will be a secondary payload detaching from an existing interplanetary mission. Planetary flybys are utilized to produce most of the plane change Δv; deep space corrective maneuvers are implemented to optimize each planetary flyby. We developed an algorithm which determines the minimum Δv required to place the CubeSat on a transfer orbit to a planet’s sphere of influence and maximizes the resultant orbital height with respect to the ecliptic plane. The satellite could reach an orbital height of 0.22 AU with an Earth gravity assist in late 2024 by boarding the Europa Clipper mission.

We present analytical methods for determining the distributions of planetary population parameters which would be detected from an assumed planetary population for a direct imaging instrument. We present detected distributions for projected separation, Δmag, semi-major axis, eccentricity, geometric albedo, and planetary radius. All of these distributions are validated against Monte Carlo simulation. For greater accuracy in Monte Carlo simulation, the number of sampled planets and computational cost must increase. Our analytical methods reduce the computational cost and more accurately determine these functions than Monte Carlo simulations.

The Planetary Imaging Concept Testbed Using a Recoverable Experiment - Coronagraph (PICTURE-C) mission will directly image debris disks and exozodiacal dust around three nearby stars from a high-altitude balloon using a vector vortex coronagraph. We present experimental results of the PICTURE-C low-order wavefront control (LOWFC) system utilizing a Shack-Hartmann (SH) sensor in an instrument testbed. The SH sensor drives both the alignment of the telescope secondary mirror using a 6-axis Hexapod and a surface parallel array deformable mirror to remove residual low-order aberrations. The sensor design and actuator calibration methods are discussed and the preliminary LOWFC closed-loop performance is shown to stabilize a reference wavefront to an RMS error of 0.30 ± 0.29 nm.

The Planetary Imaging Concept Testbed Using a Recoverable Experiment - Coronagraph (PICTURE-C) mission will directly image debris disks and exozodiacal dust around nearby stars from a high-altitude balloon using a vector vortex coronagraph. The PICTURE-C low-order wavefront control (LOWC) system will be used to correct time-varying low-order aberrations due to pointing jitter, gravity sag, thermal deformation, and the gondola pendulum motion. We present the hardware and software implementation of the low-order ShackHartmann and reflective Lyot stop sensors. Development of the high-speed image acquisition and processing system is discussed with the emphasis on the reduction of hardware and computational latencies through the use of a real-time operating system and optimized data handling. By characterizing all of the LOWC latencies, we describe techniques to achieve a framerate of 200 Hz with a mean latency of ∼378 μs

In the past 20 years, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) STIS coronagraphic instrument has observed more than 100 stars, obtaining more than 4,000 readouts since its installment on HST in 1997 and the numbers are still increasing. We reduce the whole STIS coronagraphic archive at the most commonly observed positions (Wedge A0.6 and A1.0) with new post-processing methods, and present our results here. We are able to recover all of the 32 previously reported circumstellar disks, and obtain better contrast close to the star. For some of the disks, our results are limited by the over subtraction of the methods, and therefore the major regions of the disks can be recovered except the faintest regions. We also explain our efforts in the calibration of its new BAR5 occulting position, enabling STIS to explore inner regions as close as 0.2 00 .

The WFIRST/AFTA 2.4 m space telescope currently under study includes a stellar coronagraph for the imaging and the spectral characterization of extrasolar planets. The coronagraph employs sequential deformable mirrors to compensate for phase and amplitude errors. Using the optical model of an Occulting Mask Coronagraph (OMC) testbed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), we have investigated and compared through modeling and simulations the performance of several actuator regularization-schemes in broadband wavefront control algorithm used to generate dark holes in an OMC, such as a Hybrid Lyot Coronagraph (HLC). Using the concept of a Tikhonov filter constituting the G-matrix, we have explained what the different regularization schemes do to singular-modes during a wavefront control (WFC) process called Electric Field Conjugation (EFC). In some cases we confirmed the numerical predictions with the testbed measured results. We present our findings in this paper.

An internal coronagraph with an adaptive optical system for wavefront control is being considered for direct imaging of exoplanets with upcoming space missions and concepts, including WFIRST, HabEx, LUVOIR, EXCEDE and ACESat. The main technical challenge associated with direct imaging of exoplanets is to control of both diffracted and scattered light from the star so that even a dim planetary companion can be imaged. For a deformable mirror (DM) to create a dark hole with 10⁻¹⁰ contrast in the image plane, wavefront errors must be accurately measured on the science focal plane detector to ensure a common optical path. We present here a method that uses a set of random phase probes applied to the DM to obtain a high accuracy wavefront estimate even for a dynamically changing optical system. The presented numerical simulations and experimental results show low noise sensitivity, high reliability, and robustness of the proposed approach. The method does not use any additional optics or complex calibration procedures and can be used during the calibration stage of any direct imaging mission. It can also be used in any optical experiment that uses a DM as an active optical element in the layout.

The Gemini Planet Imager Exoplanet Survey (GPIES) is a multi-year direct imaging survey of 600 stars to discover and characterize young Jovian exoplanets and their environments. We have developed an automated data architecture to process and index all data related to the survey uniformly. An automated and flexible data processing framework, which we term the GPIES Data Cruncher, combines multiple data reduction pipelines together to intelligently process all spectroscopic, polarimetric, and calibration data taken with GPIES. With no human intervention, fully reduced and calibrated data products are available less than an hour after the data are taken to expedite follow-up on potential objects of interest. The Data Cruncher can run on a supercomputer to reprocess all GPIES data in a single day as improvements are made to our data reduction pipelines. A backend MySQL database indexes all files, which are synced to the cloud, and a front-end web server allows for easy browsing of all files associated with GPIES. To help observers, quicklook displays show reduced data as they are processed in real-time, and chatbots on Slack post observing information as well as reduced data products. Together, the GPIES automated data processing architecture reduces our workload, provides real-time data reduction, optimizes our observing strategy, and maintains a homogeneously reduced dataset to study planet occurrence and instrument performance.

The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) is an adaptive optics instrument for direct imaging of young self-luminous extrasolar planets in the immediate vicinity of bright stars. Such high contrast images are often dominated by speckle artifacts, which need to be removed with sophisticated data processing. Ref. 1 introduced a new matched filter for direct detection of point sources using the KLIP speckle subtraction algorithm including a forward model of the planet PSF. We present here a much more thorough analysis of the free parameters of the implementation of this algorithm in the Python git repository pyKLIP. We perform a series of one dimensional optimization over pyKLIP parameters: the reference library exclusion criterion, the number of principal components, and the size of the sectors. We also study the effect of a spectral template mismatch between the real planets and the reduction spectrum in four GPI spectral bands (J, H, K1, K2).

In a typical focal plane wavefront control (FPWC) system, such as the adaptive optics system of NASA’s WFIRST mission, the efficient controllers and estimators in use are usually model-based. As a result, the modeling accuracy of the system influences the ultimate performance of the control and estimation. Currently, a linear state space model is used and calculated based on lab measurements using Fourier optics. Although the physical model is clearly defined, it is usually biased due to incorrect distance measurements, imperfect diagnoses of the optical aberrations, and our lack of knowledge of the deformable mirrors (actuator gains and influence functions). In this paper, we present a new approach for measuring/estimating the linear state space model of a FPWC system using the expectation-maximization (E-M) algorithm. Simulation and lab results in the Princeton’s High Contrast Imaging Lab (HCIL) show that the E-M algorithm can well handle both the amplitude and phase errors and accurately recover the system. Using the recovered state space model, the controller creates dark holes with faster speed. The final accuracy of the model depends on the amount of data used for learning.

Coupling a high-contrast imaging instrument to a high-resolution spectrograph has the potential to enable the most detailed characterization of exoplanet atmospheres, including spin measurements and Doppler mapping. The high-contrast imaging system serves as a spatial filter to separate the light from the star and the planet while the high-resolution spectrograph acts as a spectral filter, which differentiates between features in the stellar and planetary spectra. The Keck Planet Imager and Characterizer (KPIC) located downstream from the current W. M. Keck II adaptive optics (AO) system will contain a fiber injection unit (FIU) combining a high-contrast imaging system and a fiber feed to Keck’s high resolution infrared spectrograph NIRSPEC. Resolved thermal emission from known young giant exoplanets will be injected into a single-mode fiber linked to NIRSPEC, thereby allowing the spectral characterization of their atmospheres. Moreover, the resolution of NIRSPEC (R = 37,500) is high enough to enable spin measurements and Doppler imaging of atmospheric weather phenomenon. The module will be integrated and tested at Caltech before being transferred to Keck in 2018.