This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 8837, including the Title Page, Copyright Information, Table of Contents, and the Conference Committee listing.

Professional astronomical telescopes are complex optical systems at the limit of technical feasibility. Often monolithic primary mirrors and sometimes even secondary mirrors with huge dimensions are used. Prominent examples are the two reflectors of the Large Binocular Telescope and the giant mirrors of VLT, GEMINI, and SUBARU. The performance of such precision optical components significantly depends on the physical parameters and the quality of their substrate materials. Within this paper selection criteria for mirror substrates will be discussed, thereby considering the important technical parameters as well as commercial points and aspects of project management. Qualities and limitations of classical mirror substrate materials like Zerodur, ULE, Sitall, borosilicate glass and Cervit will be evaluated and compared to new substrate materials like silicon carbide and beryllium. The different suppliers and their production processes are presented. In addition large mirrors of existing observatories and of telescopes under construction will be listed, thereby concentrating on mirrors above three meter in diameter. An outlook on material trends and on future astronomical telescopes closes this overview on the market of huge monolithic mirror substrates for optical astronomy.

For space-based use, projected needs are for large optics of the one-meter class that lie under 30 kg/m² in mass areal density. Current space programs using glass optics, such as Kepler, exhibit a mass of 45 kg/m², while JWST beryllium optics, including hardware attachment, are as low as 18 kg/m². Silicon carbide optics can be made lighter than glass, although not as light as beryllium; however, distinct advantages in thermal conductivity and expansion coefficient are evidenced at all temperatures, allowing for greater thermal flux , minimizing gradients and maximizing performance, both earth and space looking. For manufacturability and production, it is desirable to minimize weight while maintaining reasonable cell spacing for open back lightweight design, which will reduce both cost and risk. To this end we perform a trade study to design such an optic that meets both mass and stiffness requirements while being within the regime of ease of manufacture. The design study chooses a hexagonal segment, 1.2 meters across flats (1.4 meters corner to corner), mimicking the JWST design. Polishing, mounting, test, and environmental operational errors are duly considered.

Aluminum mirrors and telescopes can be built to perform well if the material is processed correctly and can be relatively low cost and short schedule. However, the difficulty of making high quality aluminum telescopes increases as the size increases, starting with uniform heat treatment through the thickness of large mirror substrates. A risk reduction effort was started to build and test a ½ meter diameter super polished aluminum mirror. Material selection, the heat treatment process and stabilization are the first critical steps to building a successful mirror. In this study, large aluminum blanks of both conventional AA-6061 per AMS-A-22771 and RSA AA-6061 were built, heat treated and stress relieved. Both blanks were destructively tested with a cut through the thickness. Hardness measurements and tensile tests were completed. We present our results in this paper and make suggestions for modification of procedures and future work.

The unique performance of aluminum-beryllium frequently makes it an ideal material for manufacturing precision optical-grade metal mirrors. Traditional methods of manufacture utilize hot-pressed powder block in billet form which is subsequently machined to final dimensions. Complex component geometries such as lightweighted, non-plano mirrors require extensive tool path programming, fixturing, and CNC machining time and result in a high buy-to-fly ratio (the ratio of the mass of raw material purchased to the mass of the finished part). This increases the cost of the mirror structure as a significant percentage of the procurement cost is consumed in the form of machining, tooling, and scrap material that do not add value to the final part. Inrad Optics, Inc. and IBC Advanced Alloys Corp. undertook a joint study to evaluate the suitability of investment-cast Beralcast® 191 and 363 aluminum-beryllium as a precision mirror substrate material. Net shape investment castings of the desired geometry minimizes machining to just cleanup stock, thereby reducing the recurring procurement cost while still maintaining performance. The thermal stability of two mirrors, (one each of Beralcast® 191 and Beralcast® 363), was characterized from -40°F to +150°F. A representative pocketed mirror was developed, including the creation of a relevant geometry and production of a cast component to validate the approach. Information from the demonstration unit was used as a basis for a comparative cost study of the representative mirror produced in Beralcast® and one machined from a billet of AlBeMet® 162 (AlBeMet® is a registered trademark of Materion Corporation). The technical and financial results of these studies will be discussed in detail.

Zero defect single crystal silicon (Single-Crystal Si), with its diamond cubic crystal structure, is completely isotropic in most properties important for advanced aerospace systems. This paper will identify behavior of the three most dominant planes of the Single-Crystal Si cube (110), (100) and (111). For example, thermal and optical properties are completely isotropic for any given plane. The elastic and mechanical properties however are direction dependent. But we show through finite element analysis that in spite of this, near-isotropic behavior can be achieved with component designs that utilize the optimum elastic modulus in directions with the highest loads. Using glass frit bonding to assemble these planes is the only bonding agent that doesn’t degrade the performance of Single-Crystal Si. The most significant anisotropic property of Single-Crystal Si is the Young’s modulus of elasticity. Literature values vary substantially around a value of 145 GPa. The truth is that while the maximum modulus is 185 GPa, the most useful <110< crystallographic direction has a high 169 GPa, still higher than that of many materials such as aluminum and invar. And since Poisson’s ratio in this direction is an extremely low 0.064, distortion in the plane normal to the load is insignificant. While the minimum modulus is 130 GPa, a calculated average value is close to the optimum at approximately 160 GPa. The minimum modulus is therefore almost irrelevant. The (111) plane, referred to as the natural cleave plane survives impact that would overload the (110) and/or (100) plane due to its superior density. While mechanical properties vary from plane to plane each plane is uniform and response is predictable. Understanding the Single-Crystal Si diamond cube provides a design and manufacture path for building lightweight Single-Crystal Si systems with near-isotropic response to loads. It is clear then that near-isotropic elastic behavior is achievable in Single-Crystal Si components and will provide subsecond thermal equilibrium and sub-micron creep.

We report on the optical performance of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite (CFRP) mirrors after 1.49 years exposure onboard the Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE 7). Mirror samples were placed on the MISSE 7A tray, outside the ISS from October 2009 and retrieved September 2011. The environment was an extreme environment exposure test, which is considered “worst case” for survivability of composite mirrors for imaging applications in low-earth orbit (LEO) The results from testing the returned flight samples show degradation in two of the mirror’s aluminum coatings. However, the surface figure of one of the coated mirrors remained largely unchanged after the long-duration experiment. Test results will be compared against the original, pre-flight mirror performance for each of the 3 samples.

The ASTRO2010 Decadal Survey stated that an advanced large-aperture ultraviolet, optical, near-infrared (UVOIR) telescope is required to enable the next generation of compelling astrophysics and exoplanet science; and, that present technology is not mature enough to affordably build and launch any potential UVOIR mission concept. Under Science and Technology funding, NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center and ITT Exelis have developed a more cost effective process to make 4m monolithic spaceflight UV quality, low areal density, thermally and dynamically stable primary mirrors. A proof of concept mirror was built and tested down to 250K which would allow imaging out to 2.5 microns. The processing of this mirror to UV specifications will be discussion along including the image of ion figuring to mid and high spatial frequency error terms.

A 43cm diameter stacked core mirror demonstrator was interferometrically tested at room temperature down to 250 degrees Kelvin for thermal deformation. The 2.5m radius of curvature spherical mirror assembly was constructed by low temperature fusing three abrasive waterjet core sections between two CNC pocket milled face sheets. The 93% lightweighted Corning ULE® mirror assembly represents the current state of the art for future UV, optical, near IR space telescopes. During the multiple thermal test cycles, test results of interferometric test, thermal IR images of the front face were recorded in order to validate thermal optical model.

Current and future space missions demanding ever more stringent stability and precision requirements are driving the need for (ultra) stable and lightweight structures. Materials best suited to meeting these needs in a passive structural design, centre around ceramic materials or specifically tailored CFRP composite. Ceramic materials have essential properties (very low CTE, high stiffness), but also unfavorable properties (low fracture toughness). Ceramic structures feature in a number of current and planned ESA missions. These missions benefit from the superior stiffness and thermo-elastic stability properties of ceramics, but suffer the penalties inherent to the brittle nature of these materials. Current practice in designing and sizing ceramic structures is to treat ceramic materials in a deterministic manner similar to conventional materials but with larger safety factors and conservatively derived material strength properties. This approach is convenient, but can be penalising in mass and in practice does not arrive at an equivalent structural reliability compared to metallic components. There is also no standardised approach for the design and verification of ceramic structures in Europe. To improve this situation, ESA placed two parallel study contracts with Astrium and Thales Alenia Space with the objective to define design and verification methodology for ceramic structures, with the further goal to establish a common ‘handbook’ for design and verification approach. This paper presents an overview of ceramic structures used in current and future ESA missions and summarises the activities to date in the frame of improving and standardising design and verification methods for ceramic structures.

The influence of the Low-Earth orbit (LEO) environment on the mechanical strength of silicon carbide (SiC) was evaluated on two flight experiments as part of the Materials on the International Space Station Experiment (MISSE). SiC samples for modulus of rupture (MOR) and equibiaxial flexural strength (EFS) testing were flown on the Optical and Reflector Materials experiments (ORMatE) as part of MISSE-6 (launched on STS-123, March 2008; returned on STS-128, September 2009) and MISSE-7 (launched on STS-129, November 2009; returned on STS- 134, June 2011). Two different SiC vendors provided material for each flight experiment. The goal of the experiments was to measure mechanical properties of the flight samples and compare them to an equal number of similar samples in control and traveler sample sets. Complete characterization of the strength of brittle materials typically requires many more test specimens than could be reasonably accommodated on the ORMatE sample tray and statistical models based on few samples include large uncertainties. Understanding the results of the mechanical tests of MISSE samples required comparison to results from a statistically valid number of samples. Prior testing by The Aerospace Corporation of material supplied by the same four vendors was used to evaluate the MISSE results, including flight and control samples. The results showed that exposure to LEO over the durations covered by MISSE 6 and 7 (approximately 18 and 20 months, respectively) did not alter the mechanical strength of the silicon carbide for any of the vendors’ materials.

Silicon Carbide (SiC) mirrors hold many advantages over traditional optical materials and are increasingly common in optical systems. The wide range of optical applications necessitates different approaches to the manufacturing and finishing of SiC mirrors. Three key advancements have led to this differentiation: 1) manufacturing of CVD clad SiC mirrors in near cost and schedule parity with Zerodur, 2) super-polish of amorphous Silicon claddings, 3) low-roughness polishing results of bare reaction-bonded SiC aspheres. Three approaches which utilize these advancements will be discussed, each with its own strengths and weaknesses for specific applications. The relative schedules and performance of these approaches will also be compared, with Zerodur used as a reference.

One of the major problems perceived for deposited silicon carbide mirrors and structures is the cost associated with machining and lightweighting the material to the specifications of a drawing. Molded pedigrees of silicon carbide address these concerns by casting or molding a slurry and prefiring the slurry to make a consolidated and porous greenbody which is relatively soft and not very difficult to machine. The machined greenbody is then infiltrated with molten silicon in an exothermic process that yields a two phase reaction bonded silicon carbide material that must undergo a final machining step. Converted silicon carbide pedigrees machine a graphite or carbon/carbon precursor material to near net shape and then infiltrate the part with gaseous silicon monoxide or molten silicon to convert most or all of the carbon to silicon carbide. Some pedigrees are highly porous, while others may be dense and containing 2 or 3 different phases of material. We have created and demonstrated a new fiber reinforced silicon carbide material that combines the benefits of molding, infiltration and conversion processes. The resulting HoneySiC material requires a minimal amount of machining. HoneySiC material achieves lightweighting of 92% relative to bulk material and net production cost on the order of $38K per square meter (unpolished), less than half of NASA’s goal of $100K per square meter.

L-3 Communications IOS-SSG (L-3 SSG) has recently completed development of an ultra low wavefront error and highly stable Silicon Carbide (SiC) optical payload for the Joint Milli-Arcsecond Pathfinder Survey (JMAPS) mission. Selection of SiC as the opto-mechanical material was driven by the JMAPS requirements for extremely low residual optical aberrations and distortion, and state-of-the-art temporal and thermal stability. JMAPS utilizes a passively athermalized design, combining SiC optics with aggressively lightweighted SiC metering structures. The resulting hardware has been optically tested over temperature, demonstrating an exceptionally low and stable system level wavefront error. This exceptional performance, combined with the aggressively lightweighted sinterbonded SiC structures developed result in an instrument which represents the state-of-the-art from the perspective of optical performance and structural efficiency. We will provide an overview of the system, with emphasis on the SiC opto-mechanics, and system level test results.

A new reactive chemical mechanical polishing process has been developed and optimized for polishing CVD SiC mirror samples. The studies show that the abrasives, chemical nature of the slurry, and other additives play an important role in the material removal rate and surface finish of the SiC mirror. The use of different abrasive types and sizes resulted in differing roughness and removal rates. The smaller abrasives created surface defectivity or higher roughness. This can be explained by different polishing rates of different orientations of SiC grains, resulting in the grain enhancement. Under optimal conditions with appropriate abrasive particles, roughness RMS as low as 0.2 nm was achieved on CVD SiC samples. The process also did not show any scratch-like features in the optical interferometry measurements.

Owing to its high specific stiffness and high thermal stability, silicon carbide is one of the materials most suitable for large space-borne optics. Technologies for accurate optical measurements of large optics in the vacuum or cryogenic conditions are also indispensable. Within the framework of the large SiC mirror study program led by JAXA, we manufactured an 800-mm-diameter lightweight telescope, all of which is made of HB-Cesic, a new type of carbon-fiber-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC) material developed jointly by ECM, Germany and MELCO, Japan. We first fabricated an 800-mm HB-Cesic primary mirror, and measured the cryogenic deformation of the mirror mounted on an HB-Cesic optical bench in a liquid-helium chamber. We observed the cryo-deformation of 110 nm RMS at 18 K with neither appreciable distortion associated with the mirror support nor significant residual deformation after cooling. We then integrated the primary mirror and a high-order aspheric secondary mirror into a telescope. To evaluate its optical performance, we established a measurement system, which consists of an interferometer in a pressure vessel mounted on a 5-axis adjustable stage, a 900-mm auto-collimating flat mirror, and a flat mirror stand with mechanisms of 2-axis tilt adjustment and rotation with respect to the telescope optical axis. We installed the telescope with the measurement system into the JAXA 6-m chamber and tested them at a vacuum pressure to verify that the system has a sufficiently high tolerance against vibrations in the chamber environment. Finally we conducted a preliminary study of sub-aperture stitching interferometry, which is needed for telescopes of our target missions in this study, by replacing the 900-mm flat mirror with a rotating 300-mm flat mirror.

Silicon carbide (SiC) based ceramics have received significant study for optical applications due to high specific stiffness, high thermal conductivity, and low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Reaction bonded SiC ceramics, which are composites of SiC and Si, are of particular interest due to large size and complex shape capability. The behavior of these ceramics is very much affected by the grain size of the SiC phase. The present work examines SiC grain sizes ranging from 6 to 50 μm, with the goal of optimizing properties and finishing capability for optical uses. Microstructures are reviewed; physical, mechanical and thermal properties are presented; and post-polishing surface roughness data are provided. In particular, results demonstrate that properties can be tailored by SiC particle size selection, and that measureable enhancement in surface roughness can be achieved by moving to smaller SiC grain size.

Silicon carbide (SiC) has good thermal conductivity, high stiffness, and a relatively low specific density, all of which are advantageous to the application to telescopes operating at cryogenic temperatures. The first Japanese astronomical infrared space mission AKARI, which was launched in 2006 February and completed the second generation all-sky survey at 6 bands from mid- to far-infrared, employed a 700mm cryogenic telescope made of specially developed SiC. It was a sandwich-type of SiC composed of a lightweight porous core and a dense chemical vapor deposition (CVD) coat to decrease the specific density and facilitate machining for achieving the required surface figure accuracy. Measurements with an interferometer of 160-mm sample mirrors demonstrated that the AKARI mirror SiC had good thermal stability down to cryogenic temperatures (~6K), while the mirror support of the compact design became the primary source of the wave-front errors of the AKARI telescope. Taking the advantage of the heritage of the AKARI telescope development as well as ESA’s Herschel telescope, we are planning the next infrared space mission SPICA (Space Infrared Telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics) of a 3.2m cooled telescope in participation of ESA using SiC-based materials. In this presentation, we summarize the development of AKARI SiC telescope and present the development activities of the SPICA telescope from the point of view of SiC being as the mirror material for cryogenic space infrared telescopes.

Recent experience with finishing off-axis parabolas and other conic surfaces is demonstrated by some examples that illustrate surface accuracy – not only in terms of traditional metrics, but also in terms of specified ranges of spatial frequency. Particular attention is given to the topic of interferometric metrology, and the extent to which we can effectively characterize mid-spatial frequency errors. The presence of mid-spatial errors can appear even more dominant in hard ceramics like SiC as compared with glass – reasons for this are suggested. This paper will discuss how controlled force grinding, robotic polishing, and surface smoothing can be employed to minimize and mitigate mid-spatial errors in fast silicon carbide aspheric mirrors. Recent experience and results are presented on two SiC mirrors finished by Aperture Optical Sciences Inc.

Modern techniques in deterministic finishing employ devices, which provide geometrically well-defined removal functions for precision correction of fast aspheres. While stability of the removal function is essential, a commonly experienced consequence of such controlled removal is the creation of a residual trail, or signature of periodic surface “ripples” or textures that correlate to the characteristics of the removal function and tool path. The extent to which this signature exists in both amplitude and spatial frequency can have a profound impact on system imaging performance. Therefore, it is necessary to accurately characterize the spatial frequency content of surfaces and control its impact through proper specifications in order to guaranty image performance. Traditional specifications like Peak to Valley and RMS wavefront specifications cannot fully capture or predict image quality in fast aspheric optics unless perhaps they are specified over precise spatial scale lengths (or frequencies). In this paper we will explore a correlation of surface metrics and image performance using empirical data collected on a variety of fast aspheric mirrors produced by Aperture Optical Sciences Inc.

CFRP (Caron fiber reinforced plastics) have superior properties of high specific elasticity and low thermal expansion for satellite telescope structures. However, difficulties to achieve required surface accuracy and to ensure stability in orbit have discouraged CFRP application as main mirrors. We have developed ultra-light weight and high precision CFRP mirrors of sandwich structures composed of CFRP skins and CFRP cores using a replica technique. Shape accuracy of the demonstrated mirrors of 150 mm in diameter was 0.8 μm RMS (Root Mean Square) and surface roughness was 5 nm RMS as fabricated. Further optimization of fabrication process conditions to improve surface accuracy was studied using flat sandwich panels. Then surface accuracy of the flat CFRP sandwich panels of 150 mm square was improved to flatness of 0.2 μm RMS with surface roughness of 6 nm RMS. The surface accuracy vs. size of trial models indicated high possibility of fabrication of over 1m size mirrors with surface accuracy of 1μm. Feasibility of CFRP mirrors for low temperature applications was examined for JASMINE project as an example. Stability of surface accuracy of CFRP mirrors against temperature and moisture was discussed.

Composite materials often carry the reputation of demonstrating high variability in critical material properties. The JWST telescope metering structure is fabricated of several thousand separate composite piece parts. The stringent dimensional stability requirements on the metering structure require the critical thermal strain response of every composite piece be verified either at the billet or piece part level. JWST is a unique composite space structure in that it has required the manufacturing of several hundred composite billets that cover many lots of prepreg and many years of fabrication. The flight billet thermal expansion acceptance criteria limits the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) to a tolerance ranging between ±0.014 ppm/K to ±0.04 ppm/K around a prescribed nominal when measured from 293 K down to 40 K. The different tolerance values represent different material forms including flat plates and different tube cross-section dimensions. A precision measurement facility was developed that could measure at the required accuracy and at a pace that supported the composite part fabrication rate. The test method and facility is discussed and the results of a statistical process analysis of the flight composite billets are surveyed.

Composite materials are applied in precision optical metering structures because of their low thermal expansion properties in concert with high specific stiffness. Twisting and bending of long composite tubes, such as the secondary mirror support structure for the JWST telescope, requires control and verification. A stochastic modeling method was applied that simulates the manufacturing process variability and estimates ranges for expected twist and bend over the tube length from ambient to cryogenic temperatures. A development strut for the JWST secondary mirror support structure was fabricated and a metrology system was designed and implemented that measured the bend and twist response from ambient to 30 K. Modeling methods and predictions are outlined. The test metrology and results are summarized, along with a comparison between test and prediction.

Transparent beta-SiC is of great interest because its high strength, low coefficient of thermal expansion, very high thermal conductivity, and cubic crystal structure give it a very high thermal shock resistance. A transparent, polycrystalline beta-SiC window will find applications in armor, hypersonic missiles, and thermal control for thin disc lasers. SiC is currently available as either small transparent vapor grown disks or larger opaque shapes. Neither of which are useful in window applications. We are developing sintering technology to enable transparent SiC ceramics. This involves developing procedures to make high purity powders and studying their densification behavior. We have been successful in demonstrating transparency in thin sections using Field Assisted Sintering Technology (FAST). This paper will discuss the reaction mechanisms in the formation of beta-SiC powder and its sintering behavior in producing transparent ceramics.

Sapphire is uniquely suitable for sensor windows of electro-optical systems due to its high transparency, high mechanical strength, and chemical inactivity. Unfortunately, these same characteristics also cause polishing of sapphire windows to be extremely difficult and slow. Hence the challenge is to develop a process for affordable production of large area sapphire windows with low-roughness, low-stress and without surface and subsurface damage. Here we report a novel rapid chemical mechanical polishing process that increases the material removal rate during polishing of sapphire by greater than twofold over conventional processes. Such a process can also produce angstrom level surface finish.

Joining of materials becomes an issue, when high stability at large temperature variation is required. Stress from thermal mismatch of auxiliary materials and corresponding distortions are often unavoidable. We describe the use of two inorganic bonding technologies for joining low thermal expansion glasses. The techniques of silicate and direct bonding were applied to join ultra-low thermal expansion glass elements of 150 mm diameter to from light-weight and high precision opto-mechanical compounds. Related bond strengths were investigated on separate reference specimen. Dimensional stability of the bonded systems during thermal cycling in vacuum was investigated by Fizeau interferometry at temperatures between 78 K and 335 K with high accuracy. The results illustrate the great potential of both bonding technologies for glass based precision engineering applications to be used under highly demanding environmental conditions, like in space.

The U.S. Naval Research Laboratory has pioneered the development of sintering processes for making highly transparent optical ceramics. For example, we have demonstrated the fabrication of record low absorption loss spinel as an exit window for High Energy Laser systems and rare earth doped Y₂O₃ and Lu₂O₃ for solid-state ceramic lasers. We have also developed thick spinel windows for submarine photonic masts and predicted the performance of an imaging system using testing and modeling. More recently, we have developed a novel approach of hot pressing where a transparent ceramic is produced in the net shape without requiring post polishing. This technology will result in significant cost savings associated with polishing the final optical element. We are also developing motheye structures on spinel surface to provide rugged anti-reflective solutions. We had earlier identified a Barium GalloGermanate (BGG) glass with matching index and expansion coefficient to spinel. We had demonstrated fabrication of a laminated dome for the Joint Air to Ground Missile (JAGM) program and the technology was transitioned to industry. We have pushed this technology further by developing a BGG glass – spinel ceramic transparent micro-composite, which can be processed well below spinel sintering temperatures. To address the relatively lower strength of BGG glass compared with spinel, we developed an ion-exchange process and achieved strengths up to 450 MPa. This paper gives a summary of our recent findings.

Negative refractive index arises typically in metamaterials via multiple routes. One such avenue is the condition where the Poynting vector of the electromagnetic wave is in opposition to the group velocity in the material. An earlier work along this route in a chiral material led to the well-known result of requiring very large (non-realizable) chirality. Thereafter, a combination of chirality together with first-order dispersion was examined using plane wave electromagnetic analysis. To arrive at the conclusions in that approach, the three wave velocities (energy, group and phase) were derived under first-order dispersion in permittivity, permeability and chirality. Negative index in this approach was established under the condition of contra-propagating group and phase velocities. Regions of negative index were found analytically by assuming standard dispersive models (such as Condon). In this paper, we will re-visit the negative index problem under higher-order dispersion. In addition, we will re-examine the plane wave propagation model under parametric dispersion where each material parameter (ε, μ, κ) is dispersively expanded up to the second order in frequency. Such a physical effect may be traced to group velocity dispersion (GVD) in the material. Field solutions are then obtained under the GVD effect, and extended to the evaluation of the energy, phase and group velocities.