KEYWORDS: Eye, Hemodynamics, Retina, Imaging systems, In vivo imaging, Cameras, Optical coherence tomography, Signal to noise ratio, Neurophotonics, Tunable filters
SignificanceMicrocirculation and neurovascular coupling are important parameters to study in neurological and neuro-ophthalmic conditions. As the retina shares many similarities with the cerebral cortex and is optically accessible, a special focus is directed to assessing the chorioretinal structure, microvasculature, and hemodynamics of mice, a vital animal model for vision and neuroscience research.AimWe aim to introduce an optical imaging tool enabling in vivo volumetric mouse retinal monitoring of vascular hemodynamics with high temporal resolution.ApproachWe translated the spatio-temporal optical coherence tomography (STOC-T) technique into the field of small animal imaging by designing a new optical system that could compensate for the mouse eye refractive error. We also developed post-processing algorithms, notably for the assessment of (i) localized hemodynamics from the analysis of pulse wave–induced Doppler artifact modulation and (ii) retinal tissue displacement from phase-sensitive measurements.ResultsWe acquired high-quality, in vivo volumetric mouse retina images at a rate of 113 Hz over a lateral field of view of ∼500 μm. We presented high-resolution en face images of the retinal and choroidal structure and microvasculature from various layers, after digital aberration correction. We were able to measure the pulse wave velocity in capillaries of the outer plexiform layer with a mean speed of 0.35 mm/s and identified venous and arterial pulsation frequency and phase delay. We quantified the modulation amplitudes of tissue displacement near major vessels (with peaks of 150 nm), potentially carrying information about the biomechanical properties of the retinal layers involved. Last, we identified the delays between retinal displacements due to the passing of venous and arterial pulse waves.ConclusionsThe developed STOC-T system provides insights into the hemodynamics of the mouse retina and choroid that could be beneficial in the study of neurovascular coupling and vasculature and flow speed anomalies in neurological and neuro-ophthalmic conditions.
We present a novel ultrafast imaging system using Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence Tomography (STOC-T), capable of acquiring structural images of a mouse retina at a volumetric rate of 112 Hz, aided by a calibrated fundus camera for focal plane adjustment. We extract blood pulse traces from retinal and choroidal vessels using a structural-only OCT analysis, and pulse wave-induced retinal layer displacement from differential OCT phase analysis. With both analyses, we measure hemodynamic parameters, such as the delays between arterial and venous pulsation, to provide a comprehensive suite of potential biomarkers of retinal diseases.
The impact of LASIK surgery on corneal biomechanics remains unclear. To address this, we used air-coupled ultrasonic optical coherence elastography (ACUS-OCE) system to examine the full spatial-dependent elasticity of corneas before and after LASIK. We measured Lamb wave propagation speed and average corneal thickness in 16 semi-meridians to calculate the Shear Modulus (G) in 30 healthy control subjects (n=60 corneas) and 8 patients (n= 16 corneas) pre- and 1-month post-LASIK. G decreased from 52±4 kPa to 43±5 kPa after LASIK intervention. In summary, LASIK decreased corneal stiffness, which is consistent with the loss of anterior stroma containing high lamellae interweaving.
Surgeries performed on human eye require a high level of dexterity. Accuracy of widely used ophthalmic stereomicroscopes can be affected by limited depth perception and precision reduced by physiological tremor. Robotic arm-assisted manipulation of surgical tools improves precision, while intraoperative Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) provides depth information and improves accuracy. Our hardware and software solutions enable tracking the tool tip to ensure the displayed OCT cross-scans, rather than 3-D volumes, are always locked to the tools’ tip position parsed from the robotic arm subsystem. Tool tracking errors for lateral movement and rotation are discussed for various velocities of the tool.
We report Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence Tomography (STOC-T) for acquiring optoretinography-based comprehensive characterization of retinal tissue response to flickering light across a broad spectrum (5Hz to 45Hz). This approach involves the introduction of frequency chirp during stimulation, offering a more practical means of assessing the frequency traits of photoreceptors. Our technique unveiled notable variations in response amplitudes between two subjects, both in the context of diverse stimulus amplitudes and when comparing responses to both rectangular and sinusoidal stimuli. This innovative method establishes a path for the unbiased identification of temporal-contrast sensitivity functions, exclusively focused on photoreceptors.
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We present a novel ultrafast imaging system using Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence Tomography (STOC-T), capable of acquiring structural images of a mouse retina at a volumetric rate of 112 Hz. A calibrated fundus camera and white-light illumination aid the alignment of the mouse and the adjustment of the focal plane in the mouse retina for the STOC-T image. We extract pulsatile blood flow frequency and other hemodynamic parameters from multiple retinal and choroidal vessels from structural-only OCT images, highlighting the prospects of STOC-T for monitoring retinal hemodynamics in a simple way.
We developed and applied Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence Tomography (STOC-T), which supported by computational aberration correction enables high resolution imaging of the human and mouse retina in vivo.
We use Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence Tomography (STOC-T) to record flicker ORG signals. The chirped frequency stimulus (5 Hz to 45 Hz) provides a more convenient way of measuring photoreceptors' frequency characteristics. Our method detected significant differences in response amplitudes in two measured subjects when comparing responses to different stimulus amplitudes as well as when comparing responses to rectangular and sinusoidal stimulation.
Estimation of surgical tool pose is essential for surgical image guidance. Near real-time position and angle estimation is crucial, for example, for intraoperative optical coherence tomography tracking in retinal microsurgery. The current state-of-the-art algorithm for surgical tool tracking in posterior eye surgery was first introduced by Alsheakhali et al.1 We propose Dual Color Space Algorithm - an improved tool segmentation method based on combined color space masks, set thresholds, a shadow-insensitive detector for the tool edge, and more robust detection of the tip of the surgical tools. The presented algorithms are benchmarked on a series of manually annotated images from posterior eye surgery video. The video frames suffer from the confounding effect of the tool’s shadow and spot illumination occurring several times. A severalfold improvement in the algorithm’s accuracy is reported.
We present a novel mouse eye imaging system based on the Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence Tomography (STOC-T) technique capable of acquiring structural image of a mouse retina at a volumetric rate of 112 Hz. A fundus camera and white light illumination aid the alignment of the mouse and the adjustment of the focal plane in the mouse retina for the STOC-T image. The fundus camera is calibrated so that when the white-light image of the mouse eye fundus appears in focus after the appropriate gel thickness is selected for a given mouse and bi-concave lens, the corresponding near infrared STOC-T image of the photoreceptor layer is also in focus, albeit with minor shifts. We present images of retinal and choroidal tissue from a B6 albino wild type mouse after the focal plane adjustment with richness of details.
Optical biometers are routinely used to measure intraocular distances in ophthalmic applications such as cataract surgery planning. However, due to their high cost and reduced transportability, access to them is still limited in low-resource and remote settings, where the prevalence of cataract is higher. To increase patients’ access to optical biometry we propose a novel low-cost frequency-domain optical delay line (FDODL) based on a stepper motor spinning a tilted mirror, integrated into a time-domain (TD) optical coherence tomography (OCT) system. Optical simulations of the low-cost FDODL demonstrated its capability of axially scanning different ranges simply by selecting different tilt angles of the spinning mirror with respect to the motor shaft direction, without any changes to the motor itself. Considering off-the-shelf components up to 2-inch in aperture and a tilt of 5 mechanical degrees, the optical pathlength range could reach up to 26.63 mm. A prototype of the low-cost FDODL with a 1.5-degree tilt angle and an A-scan frequency of 10 Hz was experimentally implemented and combined with a TD-OCT system. The scanning capability of the system was characterized to be 7.31 mm, in good agreement with the results of the simulation. The TD-OCT sample arm featured a fixed delay unit with two orthogonally polarized sample beams, focusing on the anterior segment and on the retina, respectively. The intraocular distances of a model eye were measured with the proposed low-cost biometer and found in agreement with the manufacturer’s specs, validating our novel design.
We present results from measurements of retina response to a chirped frequency flickering light. Such an approach facilitates faster characterization of photoreceptor response amplitude in the function of stimulus frequency in comparison to separate measurements at different frequencies. In our work, we compare responses to stimuli of various types (e.g., different flicker amplitudes) in the frequency range from 5 Hz to 45 Hz.
We report on a novel mice imaging system based on the Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence Tomography (STOC-T)
technique. The contribution describes the translation of the STOC-T technique, initially developed for human eye imaging, into the field of experimental small animal imaging. We present images of retinal and choroidal tissue from a B6 albino wild type mouse acquired at a volumetric rate of 112 Hz.
Corneal biomechanical weakening presumably precedes keratoconus (KC), an ocular disease that leads to vision loss. Cross-meridian swept-source OCT coupled to air-puff excitation was used to induce corneal deformation to investigate biomechanics in Forme Fruste (FF)/subclinical (n=10), KC I (n=10) and healthy (n=12) eyes. Shape and asymmetry deformation parameters were analyzed in two meridians, and the tangent modulus was calculated using Finite Element modeling (FEM). Compared to healthy eyes, the asymmetry parameter decreased 0.32±0.05% (FF/subclinical), and 0.66±0.18% (KC I). The shape parameter increased 0.91±0.32% (FF/subclinical) and 1.47±1.2% (KC I). Significant differences between groups were observed mostly on the vertical meridian. Inverse FEM showed ∼30% localized stiffness reduction in KC eyes, compared to healthy eyes. Our results show that the additional vertical meridian allows more significant use of deformation parameters as biomarkers of biomechanical changes.
Assessing mechanical properties of tissue plays an important role in disease diagnosis and clinical examination. Here, we present a low resource and cost-effective method of using digital camera technologies to map mechanical properties of tissue, termed camera-based optical palpation. We applied this technique to breast cancer detection and burn scar assessment, validating its capability of generating high mechanical contrast between various tissue regions for clinical applications. We also implemented camera-based optical palpation in a smartphone, demonstrating its potential for telehealth applications in rural and remote areas, improving equity of access to optimal treatment for people all around the world.
We present a microscope-integrated Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) system for aiding ophthalmic surgical manoeuvers. It generates two B-scans dynamically locked on the tip of the surgical tool to provide relevant depth cues. The low-latency architecture of our tool-tracking engine provides a position update rate of 200 Hz in a bid to minimize instantaneous tool position tracking errors. Likewise, the B-scan update rate of 200 Hz helps reduce motion artefacts while allowing for high signal-to-noise ratio averaged OCT images displayed at 50 Hz.
Critical flicker frequency measurements are important in determining the spatial variation of flicker sensitivity in the human retina. An objective and localized measurement of the frequency response of photoreceptors could help elucidate the true physiological mechanisms responsible for such flicker sensitivity variations. Flicker optoretinography (ORG) may be a promising technique for this purpose. In this work, we use Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence-Tomography to capture flicker optoretinograms to visible patterned light stimulation modulated in the range from few Hz to 30Hz over 5.7º x 2.8º of the retina, at several foveal eccentricities, highlighting the prospect for objective flicker perimetry with ORG.
We report results from in-vivo measurements of a human retina photoreceptors layer response to a flicker stimulus. We performed our experiments with the Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence-Tomography (STOC-T) setup. We show that the phase analysis facilitates spatially resolved detection of the retina's response to different stimulus frequencies.
The ability to perform multi-meridian, simultaneous OCT measurements of air-induced corneal deformation is expected to highly improve the accuracy of assessing corneal biomechanics. We propose a simplified method targeting 3-D deformation measurement that could be introduced to swept-source OCT systems. We utilize a spatial-depth-encoded multiplexing to provide a 9-spot measurement of the deformation. The method is promising for the assessment of corneal asymmetries and diagnosis of corneal pathologies such as keratoconus. We present in detail the system and key requirements to provide simultaneous 9-spot deformation measurement. Finally, results on porcine eyes ex vivo and human eye in vivo are presented.
Quantification of the corneas´ biomechanical properties helps to diagnose corneal abnormalities early, which is key in keratoconus (KC) management and treatment. We recently introduced a multi-meridian air-puff ssOCT system capable of acquiring corneal deformation images during air-puff excitation on two meridians. Two healthy and three KC patients were measured with the system. The results were used to quantify deformation asymmetries and as input data for Finite Element (FE) modeling, which was used to estimate corneal biomechanical properties by means of an inverse analysis. Deformation asymmetry parameters and the estimated tangent modulus for healthy and KC corneas are presented and compared.
Described in this study is an advanced co-axial acoustic stimulation technique with pre-compensation for acoustic frequency content and reconstruction of signals in the Fourier domain for use in Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Vibrography. The feasibility of the technique was demonstrated via the measurement of the first mechanical, flexural resonance modes of two contact lenses with varied elastic moduli and an ex-vivo porcine cornea, each with a maintained constant intraocular pressure. The measurement of these resonance modes was achieved through use of a Swept Source OCT system, operated in phase sensitive mode, to detect the nanometer scale displacements of these modes.
We are introducing a proof-of concept method to estimate scleral mechanical properties from air-puff deformation imaging using optical coherence tomography (OCT), customized surface segmentation methods, and 3D finite element analysis on porcine eyes.
Image artifacts due to the bulk motion of the sample are well known and described. Some methods of correction in Full-Filed Swept-Source OCT were presented. For the measurement of dynamic sample motion, the axial motion artifacts can significantly influence measured signals. Here, we investigate the axial shift phenomena for measurements with low cost, reduced speed swept laser. Simulation results have led us to the way of correction of the axial shift artifact by manipulation of the phase of OCT fringes. Results of disturbed and undisturbed measurement of vibrating speaker membrane or induced deformations of the porcine eye are presented.
Air-puff induced corneal deformation imaging reveals information highlighting normal and pathological corneal response to a non-contact mechanical excitation. Here, we present a novel customized swept-source optical coherence tomography system coupled with a collinear air-puff excitation. We acquired unobstructed dynamic corneal deformation on multiple meridians with two custom scan patterns over a field of view of up to 15 mm x 15 mm and selected puff profiles at unprecedented scan rates, both ex vivo and in vivo. We show that our system can detect corneal deformation profiles and deformation asymmetries that are useful for corneal biomechanics diagnostics and pathology screening.
Incomplete excision of cancerous tissue is a major issue in breast-conserving surgery, with up to 30% of cases requiring re-excision. In vivo quantitative micro-elastography (QME) using a hand-held probe is a promising path towards improved intraoperative margin assessment, potentially improving removal of cancerous tissue during the initial procedure. QME is an OCE technique that requires a modified 3D OCT scan in which each lateral position is acquired in two states, differing by a small compressive axial deformation. Analysis of the axial strain between the two states generates a 3D micro-elastogram that facilitates identification of cancerous tissue.
Compressive deformation is typically provided by a piezoelectric actuator. However, this approach presents significant disadvantages for hand-held scanning, most notably: the relatively large size of the actuator; high driving voltages; and the difficulty of hermetically sealing and sterilizing moving parts. Alternatively, deformation may be provided by manual compression, avoiding many of the issues associated with piezoelectric actuation. This approach has yet to be demonstrated in 3D, limiting its utility in surgical applications.
Here, we present hand-held 3D QME using a manual compression technique. Our technique requires the user to apply a steadily varying pressure to the tissue in order to generate 3D micro-elastograms. We describe the signal processing developed to enable this approach and present results from both structured phantoms and freshly excised human breast tissue, validated by histology. Furthermore, we analyze repeatability by presenting results from multiple users and benchmark our technique against the piezoelectric-actuated approach.
Disease alters both the micro-structural and micro-mechanical properties of tissue. These changes in mechanical properties manifest at the macro-scale, enabling clinicians to diagnose disease through manual palpation. This has been a primary motivator for elastography, however, in the development of elastography, manual palpation’s key advantages of dexterity and simplicity are lost. Combining manual palpation and elastography would, potentially, preserve these advantages whilst also providing clinicians with quantitative, high-resolution imaging necessary to overcome the subjective and inherently low spatial resolution of manual palpation. Optical coherence elastography (OCE) is particularly well-suited to imaging subtle changes in mechanical properties owing to its high spatial resolution and sensitivity to nanometer-scale displacement. Additionally, as OCE is an optics-based technique, it is readily implemented in compact probes, such as those already demonstrated in needles and endoscopes. Here, we propose a finger-mounted OCE probe, based on quantitative micro-elastography (QME) in a forward-facing configuration, and using the operator’s finger to apply compressive loading. A compliant silicone layer, with known mechanical properties, is placed on the sample and enables quantification of the sample’s elasticity. This finger-mounted probe is designed to preserve the dexterity of manual palpation, whilst providing quantitative, high-resolution images. In this study, we demonstrate the accuracy of finger-mounted OCE to be >70% in measuring the elasticity of tissue mimicking phantoms, and highlight the ability to delineate materials with different mechanical properties. Further, we present results performed on kangaroo muscle tissue and outline the developments required to translate this into a clinically feasible diagnostic tool.
We have developed a high-resolution optical coherence elastography system capable of estimating Young’s modulus in tissue volumes with an isotropic resolution of 15 μm over a 1 mm lateral field of view and a 100 μm axial depth of field. We demonstrate our technique on healthy and hypertensive, freshly excised and intact mouse aortas. Our technique has the capacity to delineate the individual mechanics of elastic lamellae and vascular smooth muscle. Further, we observe global and regional vascular stiffening in hypertensive aortas, and note the presence of local micro-mechanical signatures, characteristic of fibrous and lipid-rich regions.
In many applications of optical coherence elastography (OCE), it is necessary to rapidly acquire images in vivo, or within intraoperative timeframes, over fields-of-view far greater than can be achieved in one OCT image acquisition. For example, tumour margin assessment in breast cancer requires acquisition over linear dimensions of 4-5 centimetres in under 20 minutes. However, the majority of existing techniques are not compatible with these requirements, which may present a hurdle to the effective translation of OCE. To increase throughput, we have designed and developed an OCE system that simultaneously captures two 3D elastograms from opposite sides of a sample. The optical system comprises two interferometers: a common-path interferometer on one side of the sample and a dual-arm interferometer on the other side. This optical system is combined with scanning mechanisms and compression loading techniques to realize dual-scanning OCE. The optical signals scattered from two volumes are simultaneously detected on a single spectrometer by depth-encoding the interference signal from each interferometer. To demonstrate dual-scanning OCE, we performed measurements on tissue-mimicking phantoms containing rigid inclusions and freshly isolated samples of murine hepatocellular carcinoma, highlighting the use of this technique to visualise 3D tumour stiffness. These findings indicate that our technique holds promise for in vivo and intraoperative applications.
The mechanical forces that living cells experience represent an important framework in the determination of a range of intricate cellular functions and processes. Current insight into cell mechanics is typically provided by in vitro measurement systems; for example, atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements are performed on cells in culture or, at best, on freshly excised tissue. Optical techniques, such as Brillouin microscopy and optical elastography, have been used for ex vivo and in situ imaging, recently achieving cellular-scale resolution. The utility of these techniques in cell mechanics lies in quick, three-dimensional and label-free mechanical imaging. Translation of these techniques toward minimally invasive in vivo imaging would provide unprecedented capabilities in tissue characterization. Here, we take the first steps along this path by incorporating a gradient-index micro-endoscope into an ultrahigh resolution optical elastography system. Using this endoscope, a lateral resolution of 2 µm is preserved over an extended depth-of-field of 80 µm, achieved by Bessel beam illumination. We demonstrate this combined system by imaging stiffness of a silicone phantom containing stiff inclusions and a freshly excised murine liver tissue. Additionally, we test this system on murine ribs in situ. We show that our approach can provide high quality extended depth-of-field images through an endoscope and has the potential to measure cell mechanics deep in tissue. Eventually, we believe this tool will be capable of studying biological processes and disease progression in vivo.
Optical coherence elastography (OCE) is emerging as a potentially useful tool in the identification of a number of diseases. In our group, we are developing OCE techniques based on compressive loading. Typically, these techniques employ a quasi-static mechanical load introduced by uniaxially compressing a sample with a rigid plate. The resulting deformation of the sample is measured using phase-sensitive detection and the local axial strain is estimated from the slope of displacement over a finite depth in the sample, providing qualitative mechanical contrast. In this talk, an overview of our work will be given and some of the outstanding challenges described. Our group’s work in OCE can broadly be divided into four streams, each of which will be described in detail in the talk: system development; techniques; quantification; and applications.
• System development: The phase-sensitive OCE method we have developed will be described, as well as a high resolution optical coherence microscopy-based elastography system suitable for imaging cellular-scale mechanical properties.
• Techniques: In addition to presenting techniques to estimate strain, our approaches to imaging tissue viscoelasticity and nonlinearity will be described. A technique to segment elastograms based on strain heterogeneity will be presented.
• Quantification: Methods under development to quantify tissue stiffness in compression OCE will be described. This work is enabled by optical palpation and solutions to the forward and inverse elasticity problems.
• Applications: Three applications areas will be described: intraoperative assessment of tumour margins, mapping stiffness in tumour biology and assessing the stiffness of cardiovascular tissue in an animal model.
Existing models of image formation in optical coherence tomography are based upon the extended Huygens-Fresnel formalism. These models all, to varying degrees, rely on scatterer ensemble averages, rather than deterministic scattering distributions. Whilst the former is sometimes preferable, there are a growing number of applications where the ability to predict image formation based upon deterministic refractive index distributions is of great interest, including, for example, image formation in turbid tissue.
A rigorous model based upon three-dimensional solutions of Maxwell's equations offers a number of tantalising opportunities. For example, shedding light on features near or below the resolution of an OCT system and on the impact of phenomena usually described as diffraction, interference and scattering, but which more generally result from light scattering satisfying Maxwell's equations. A rigorous model allows inverse scattering methods to be developed not requiring the first-order Born approximation. Finally, a rigorous model can provide gold standard verification of myriad quantitative techniques currently being developed throughout the field.
We have developed the first such model of image formation based upon three-dimensional solutions of Maxwell's equations, which has vastly different properties to models based on two-dimensional solutions. Although we present simulated B-scans, this model is equally applicable to C-scans. This has been made possible by advances in computational techniques and in computational resources routinely available. We will present the main features of our model, comparisons of measured and simulated image formation for phantoms and discuss the future of rigorous modelling in optical coherence tomography research and application.
Visualizing stiffness within the local tissue environment at the cellular and sub-cellular level promises to provide insight
into the genesis and progression of disease. In this paper, we propose ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence
elastography, and demonstrate three-dimensional imaging of local axial strain of tissues undergoing compressive
loading. The technique employs a dual-arm extended focus optical coherence microscope to measure tissue displacement
under compression. The system uses a broad bandwidth supercontinuum source for ultrahigh axial resolution, Bessel
beam illumination and Gaussian beam detection, maintaining sub-2 μm transverse resolution over nearly 100 μm depth
of field, and spectral-domain detection allowing high displacement sensitivity. The system produces strain elastograms
with a record resolution (x,y,z) of 2×2×15 μm. We benchmark the advances in terms of resolution and strain sensitivity
by imaging a suitable inclusion phantom. We also demonstrate this performance on freshly excised mouse aorta and
reveal the mechanical heterogeneity of vascular smooth muscle cells and elastin sheets, otherwise unresolved in a
typical, lower resolution optical coherence elastography system.
KEYWORDS: Optical coherence tomography, Tissues, Lung, Tissue optics, 3D acquisition, Lymphatic system, 3D visualizations, 3D scanning, 3D modeling, 3D image processing
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) needle probes use miniaturized focusing optics encased in a hypodermic needle.
Needle probes can scan areas of the body that are too deep to be imaged by other OCT systems. This paper presents an
OCT needle probe-based system that is capable of acquiring three-dimensional scans of tissue structures. The needle can
be guided to a target area and scans acquired by rotating and pulling-back the probe. The system is demonstrated using
ex vivo human lymph node and sheep lung samples. Multiplanar reconstructions are shown of both samples, as well as
the first published 3D volume rendering of lung tissue acquired with an OCT needle probe.
In situ imaging of alveoli and the smaller airways with optical coherence tomography (OCT) has significant potential in the assessment of lung disease. We present a minimally invasive imaging technique utilizing an OCT needle probe. The side-facing needle probe comprises miniaturized focusing optics consisting of no-core and GRIN fiber encased within a 23-gauge needle. 3D-OCT volumetric data sets were acquired by rotating and retracting the probe during imaging. The probe was used to image an intact, fresh (not fixed) sheep lung filled with normal saline, and the results validated against a histological gold standard. We present the first published images of alveoli acquired with an OCT needle probe and demonstrate the potential of this technique to visualize other anatomical features such as bifurcations of the bronchioles.
We present a technique to reduce speckle in optical coherence tomography images of soft tissues. An average is formed over a set of B-scans that have been decorrelated by viscoelastic creep strain. The necessary correction for the deformation-induced spatial distortions between B-scans is achieved through geometrical co-registration using an affine transformation. Speckle reduction by up to a factor of 1.65 is shown in images of tissue-mimicking soft fibrin phantoms and excised human lymph node tissue with no observable loss of spatial resolution.
KEYWORDS: In vivo imaging, Optical coherence tomography, Data acquisition, Image segmentation, Lung, Medical research, Endoscopy, Human subjects, 3D image processing, Biomedical optics
Anatomical optical coherence tomography (aOCT) is a long-range, fibre-optic endoscopic imaging modality capable of
quantifying the size and shape of the human airway lumen. This paper presents the first application of respiratory gating
to 3D aOCT volumetric data. A sequence of time-gated data volumes are generated, characterising the dynamic
behaviour of a segment of the lower airway over an averaged respiratory cycle. The technique is demonstrated on in vivo
data acquired from three human subjects.
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