The data reported in journals on angle resolved scatter measurements for highly transparent window materials is scarce. An experimental facility with enough sensitivity to measure such low level scatter is described. A dynamic range of at least eight orders of magnitude is required to measure the peak of the specular component down to the random diffuse component far removed from the specular direction. Single crystal CaF2 and polycrystalline CVD ZnSe are measured at wavelengths from the visible to the midwave infrared. The use of thick and thin samples allows the distinction between surface scatterance and bulk scatter.
Applications involving space based instrumentation and aerodynamically heated surfaces often require knowledge of the
bi-directional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of an exposed surface at high temperature. Addressing this need,
the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) developed a BRDF facility that features a
multiple–port vacuum chamber, multiple laser sources covering the spectral range from the longwave infrared to the
ultraviolet, imaging pyrometry and laser heated samples. Laser heating eliminates stray light that would otherwise be
seen from a furnace and requires minimal sample support structure, allowing low thermal conduction loss to be obtained,
which is especially important at high temperatures. The goal is to measure the BRDF of ceramic-coated surfaces at
temperatures in excess of 1000°C in a low background environment. Most ceramic samples are near blackbody in the
longwave infrared, thus pyrometry using a LWIR camera can be very effective and accurate.
A semi-empirical reflectance/scatterance model has evolved over the years to represent a
diverse set of materials from coated substrates to optical windows. This model separates the BRDF/BSDF
into four basic components, specular, near-specular, diffuse, and Lambertian (random diffuse) terms. The
specular and near-specular components employ a Gaussian phase function and the Fresnel power
reflection coefficient. The Lambertian component uses Kubelka-Munk theory for the total integrated
reflectance and transmittance. The model features wavelength, angle, and full hemispherical
dependencies. It is applied to a variety of samples, from painted surfaces to transparent windows, with
good success. This parameterized modeling approach is attractive because algorithms that use the model
can be computationally efficient. Previous work has only considered in-plane effects. The present paper
now explicitly takes into account the out-of-plane contribution and improves the total integrated factors.
The optical scattering signature and the absorbance of a material are of interest in a variety of engineering applications,
particularly for those pertaining to optical remote sensing. The John Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
has developed an experimental capability to measure in-plane bidirectional scattering distribution functions to retrieve
optical properties of materials. These measurements are supported at high angular resolution with wavelengths that
span the ultra-violet to the long-wave infrared. Models have been developed to fit Lambertian, diffuse, near-specular,
and specular scattering at a range of incident angles. Useful material properties can then be determined through analysis
of the modeled BSDF. Optical characterization results are shown for a variety of materials, including paints, metals,
optical windows, and leaves.
Cameras provide excellent in situ coverage of many events of interest in current state-of-the-art aerospace systems.
From departing earth footage to booster separation events, cameras provide the eyes in the skies for real-time situational
awareness on the ground. One of the principal challenges of using cameras on high-speed aerospace vehicles is
designing the necessary environmental protection systems to isolate the cameras from the harsh aerothermal
environment. An established approach uses an external fairing or aeropod to provide the requisite isolation. The
camera is located within the aeropod, and the image data are sent electrically from the aeropod to the telemetry system.
While this approach has been successfully demonstrated on numerous platforms, there are advantages to moving the
camera into the interior of the vehicle and reducing the size of the imaging hardware within the aeropod. If the size of
the pod hardware can be reduced, multiple imaging sensors can be fit within the same aeropod. Alternatively, a smaller
sensor can allow for a reduced aeropod size with commensurate reduced drag and aerothermal heating. A prototype
fiber optic imaging system was developed for aerospace applications by combining a modified medical endoscope with
a ruggedized camera. With this new configuration, a significantly smaller aeropod can be used to protect only the distal
tip of the endoscope in lieu of the entire camera assembly. The data are acquired through a small lens at the distal tip
and transmitted optically through a coherent imaging fiber bundle to a camera located within the vehicle. Data from
the prototype fiber optic imaging system are compared with data acquired by a standard ruggedized camera. Results of
these tests are reported in this paper.
Multiple percentages of neodymium doped polycrystalline yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) from 0 to 10% are now
commercially available. This paper summarizes a detailed characterization of this material from the mid infrared to
ultraviolet. Characterization includes material transmittance and scatter (BSDF) measurements for multiple doping
levels of polycrystalline samples. Material Characterization is presented in the form of standard models.
Calculation of scattering properties of biological materials has classically been addressed using numerical calculations
based on T-matrix theory. These calculations use bulk optical properties, particle size distribution, and a limited selection
of shape descriptors to calculate the resulting aerosol properties. However, the most applicable shape available in T-matrix
codes, the spheroid, is not the best descriptor of most biological materials. Based on imagery of the spores of
Bacillus atrophaeus and Bacillus anthracis, capsule and egg shapes are mathematically described and programmed into
the Amsterdam Discrete Dipole Approximation (ADDA). Spectrally dependent cross sections and depolarization ratios
are calculated and a comparison made to spheroidal shapes of equivalent sizes.
Aerosol backscatter and extinction cross-sections are required to model and evaluate the performance of
both active and passive detection systems. A method has been developed that begins with laboratory
measurements of thin films and suspensions of biological material to obtain the complex index refraction of
the biological material from the UV to the LWIR. Using that result with particle size distribution and shape
information as inputs to T-matrix or discrete dipole approximation (DDA) calculations yields the extinction
cross-section and backscatter cross section as a function of wavelength. These are important inputs to the
lidar equation.
In a continuing effort to provide validated optical cross-sections, measurements have been made
on a number of high purity biological species in the laboratory as well as measurements of material
released at recent field tests. The resulting observed differences between laboratory and field
measurements aid in distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic effects, which can affect the
characteristic signatures of important biological aerosols. A variety of biological and test aerosols are
examined, including Bacillus atrophaeus (BG), and Erwina, ovalbumin, silica and polystyrene.
Cuneiform is an ancient form of writing in which wooden reeds were used to impress shapes upon moist clay tablets. Upon drying, the tablets preserved the written script with remarkable accuracy and durability. There are currently hundreds of thousands of cuneiform tablets spread throughout the world in both museums and private collections. The global scale of these artifacts presents several problems for scholars who wish to study them. It may be difficult or
impossible to obtain access to a given collection. In addition, photographic records of the tablets many times prove to be inadequate for proper examination. Photographs lack the ability to alter the lighting conditions and view direction. As a solution to these problems, we describe a 3D scanner capable of acquiring the shape, color, and reflectance of a tablet as a complete 3D object. This data set could then be stored in an online library and manipulated by suitable rendering software that would allow a user to specify any view direction and lighting condition. The scanner utilizes a camera and telecentric lens to acquire images of the tablet under varying controlled illumination conditions. Image data are processed using photometric stereo and structured light techniques to determine the tablet shape; color information is reconstructed from primary color monochrome image data. The scanned surface is sampled at 26.8 μm lateral spacing and the height information is calculated on a much smaller scale. Scans of adjacent tablet sides are registered together to form a 3D surface model.
The optical property characterization of Spinel and AlON samples, as provided by SURMET, is presented. Several experiments are performed to characterize the optical properties of the materials. A broadband FTIR transmissometer acquired data at temperatures ranging from 298 to 800 K covering a frequency range from 1887 cm-1 to 4000 cm-1. These measurements provided information on the broadband spectral properties of the samples and the temperature dependent shift of the multiphonon band edge. Laser transmission measurements were performed at 632.8 nm and 3.39 mm to provide very accurate transmission values at the two fixed wavelengths. Finally, BSDF measurements on uneroded/eroded sample pairs were performed at 632.8 nm and 3.39 mm. These measurements indicated that the erosion process introduced to these samples would have minimal affect on the imaging performance of the windows in the mid-infrared.
The effects of clouds on optical down-links (satellite to ground) have been recognized by a variety of authors. Generally the approach taken for dealing with these effects is to seek statistics on the “cloud-free line of sight.” In contrast, our approach has been to develop a model that incorporates the effects of clouds on the performance of an optical communication system. We previously reported on the use of existing cloud data bases together with a radiative transport model to describe the spatio-temporal spreading effects of multiple scatter. In addition to the cloud optical properties, the communication channel model incorporates various geometrical features such as cloud base, detector aperture, field of view (FOV), and transmitter beam size. We illustrate how manipulation of the various model parameters allows optimization of the communication system. As an example, we note that the signal level increases with FOV. However, so too does pulse stretching. Competition between these two effects (greater signal level, lower allowable bandwidth) leads to an optimum FOV. This FOV, which maximizes the error-free data rate, depends in turn on the optical thickness of the cloud. Finally, consideration of the cloud statistics provides an optimum system design for a given geographical location.
BSDF and BRDF measurements of randomly rough surfaces are often limited to the plane of incidence. For a surface with no change in optical properties upon rotation in the plane of the sample, this
is sufficient to completely represent the BRDF or BSDF of a material at a specific frequency. We apply a simple empirical model that accurately represents the full bi-directional dependence of the scatterance or reflectance based on this limited experimental data set. From these models the total integrated reflectance, total integrated scatterance, and emittance can be obtained. Example measurements of opaque painted flat surfaces, transparent samples, and fibers are presented.
Through the use of measurements and analysis we have devised a series of physics-based analytic models for the BRDF that describe the differential polarization of light scattered from a random rough surface. These models incorporate both intrinsic (refractive index) and extrinsic (statistical moments of the surface height variations) properties of the surface as well as wavelength dependence. Detailed surface statistics are acquired with a stylus scanner. Physical optics theory relates these statistics (and thus the complex coherence factor of the fields at the surface) to the far-field intensity of the scattered light. An outcome of these models is the ability to predict the spectrally varying differential polarization of emittance. Excellent agreement between measured and modeled BRDF’s is demonstrated.
The experimental characterization of multiphonon absorption in polycrystalline GaP and GaAs as a function of temperature and frequency is presented. Becaues GaP and GaAs have moderate bandgaps, free carrier absorption is examined at high temperature as well. The longwave transparency and excellent thermal and mechanical properties of GaP make it a candidate for future high-stress environment applications. In this paper, a broadband FTIR transmissometer is used with a frequency range from 500 to 5000 cm-1 for GaP and 400 to 5000 cm-1 for GaAs. Spectral measurements were performed from 10 to 800 K for GaP and 10 to 295 K for GaAs. In addition, high temperature laser transmittance measurements using HeNe lasers (632.8 nm and 3.39 μm) and a CO2 (10.6 μm) laser were conducted up to 1100 K. Using this experimental data set, an updated multiphonon and free carrier absorption model is developed that represents the experimental data over all temperatures and frequencies.
ZnS and ZnSe are two of the most extensively used longwave infrared optical window materials. Standard grade ZnS exhibits excellent transmittance properties from the 7-12 micrometer region. Post-deposition hot-isostatic pressing converts the standard grade ZnS to multispectral ZnS. Multispectral ZnS is transparent from the ultraviolet to the longwave region. ZnSe is optically superior to any grade of ZnS, but significantly weaker. In this paper, the experimental characterization of the multiphoton absorption edge in standard and multispectral grade ZnS and ZnSe as a function of temperature and frequency is presented. A broadband FTIR transmissometer is used to acquire data at temperatures ranging from 10 to 800 K for both materials. The frequency range is from 600 to 5000 cm-1 for ZnS and 400 to 5000 cm-1 for ZnSe. Using this experimental data set a multiphonon absorption model is developed that represents the experimental data over all temperatures and frequencies.
Diamond and Silicon Carbide (SiC) are two of the most durable infrared transmitting window materials available today. Diamond is transparent from 0.25 - 3 μm, exhibits weak absorption in the mid-infrared, and is again transparent from 8 μm well into the microwave range. Silicon Carbide has a single infrared transmission window from a 0.4 - 6 μm. In this paper, experimental characterization of the multiphonon absorption in CVD diamond and various grades of SiC as a function of temperature and frequency is presented. A broadband FTIR transmissometer is used. The temperature range is from 10 to 800 K and the frequency range is from 500 to 5000 cm-1. Using this experimental data set up updated multiphonon absorption model is developed that represents the experimental data over all temperatures and frequencies.
We present experimental results for the adaptive compensation of atmospheric turbulence effects on a free-space laser communication links at near horizontal propagation paths over 2.5 km and 5 km lengths. A high-resolution micro-machined piston type mirror array (12x12 elements) and a fast beam steering mirror were used in an adaptive optics laser communication system based on the model-free stochastic parallel gradient descent (SPGD) optimization wavefront control technique. Control of the mirror was performed by a VLSI SPGD micro-controller. The experimental results demonstrate the improvement of the receiver performance (fiber coupling efficiency) on a summer day with a refractive index structure constant in the order of Cn2≈10-14 m-2/3.
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