Planetary exploration constitutes one of the main components in the European Space activities. Missions to Mars, Moon and asteroids are foreseen where it is assumed that the human missions shall be preceded by robotic exploitation flights. The 3D vision is recognised as a key enabling technology in the relative proximity navigation of the space crafts, where imaging LiDAR is one of the best candidates for such 3D vision sensor.
Quantum imaging uses entangled photons to overcome the limits of a classical-light apparatus in terms of image quality, beating the standard shot-noise limit, and exceeding the Abbe diffraction limit for resolution. In today experiments, the spatial properties of entangled photons are recorded by means of complex and slow setups that include either the motorized scanning of single-pixel single-photon detectors, such as Photo-Multiplier Tubes (PMT) or Silicon Photo- Multipliers (SiPM), or the use of low frame rate intensified CCD cameras. CMOS arrays of Single Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPAD) represent a relatively recent technology that may lead to simpler setups and faster acquisition. They are spatially- and time-resolved single-photon detectors, i.e. they can provide the position within the array and the time of arrival of every detected photon with <100 ps resolution. SUPERTWIN is a European H2020 project aiming at developing the technological building blocks (emitter, detector and system) for a new, all solid-state quantum microscope system exploiting entangled photons to overcome the Rayleigh limit, targeting a resolution of 40nm. This work provides the measurement results of the 2nd order cross-correlation function relative to a flux of entangled photon pairs acquired with a fully digital 8×16 pixel SPAD array in CMOS technology. The limitations for application in quantum optics of the employed architecture and of other solutions in the literature will be analyzed, with emphasis on crosstalk. Then, the specifications for a dedicated detector will be given, paving the way for future implementations of 100kpixel Quantum Image Sensors.
Cross-talk characterization results of high-fill-factor single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays in CMOS 150-nm technology are reported and discussed. Three different SPAD structures were designed with two different sizes (15.6 and 25.6 μm pitch) and three guard ring widths (0.6, 1.1, and 1.6 μm). Each SPAD was implemented in an array, composed of 25 (5×5) devices, which can be separately activated. Measurement results show that the average cross-talk probability is well below 1% for the shallow-junction SPAD structure with 15.6 μm pitch and 39.9% fill factor, and 1.45% for the structure with 25.6 μm pitch and 60.6% fill factor. An increase of cross-talk probability with the excess bias voltage is observed.
KEYWORDS: Light, Photodetectors, Sensors, Light emitting diodes, Quenching (fluorescence), Monte Carlo methods, Single photon, Time correlated photon counting, Solids, Cryptography
The present work is focused on the description of a SPAD-based pixel suitable for random bits extraction. Compared to
the state-of-the-art, the proposed approach aims at improving the performance of the random generator with respect to
possible photon flux variation. Thanks to the adopted methodology, the entropy of the output is maintained almost
constant over a wide range of operating conditions. The principle has been validated through simulations and
implemented in a compact pixel, suitable for array implementation.
The characterization of two Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) structures fabricated in CMOS 150nm technology is reported in this paper. The structures are based on a pwell/n-iso junction and differ only for the presence of a polysilicon layer above the guard ring. Each structure is implemented in two different shapes (circular and square) and four sizes (5,10,15 and 20μm). Measurement results show that both average breakdown voltage and non-uniformity decrease with SPAD sizes. The statistical variation of Photon Detection Efficiency (PDE) and its dependence on device size are also reported and discussed. For all the considered device sizes, a PDE non-uniformity lower than 0.5% was measured.
KEYWORDS: Terahertz radiation, Field effect transistors, Clocks, Sensors, Signal to noise ratio, Antennas, Circuit switching, Signal attenuation, Signal detection, CMOS sensors
A switched-capacitor integrator readout circuit for FET-based terahertz (THz) detectors was fabricated in a 0.13 μm standard CMOS technology. The designed readout circuit is suitable for implementation in pixel arrays due to its compact size and power consumption. In order to find the optimum bias point of the FET detector, responsivity, noise equivalent power (NEP) and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) curves in function of the FET gate voltage (VG) have been measured for an arbitrary number of 10 accumulation cycles and two different operating clock frequencies. A responsivity peak of 1.8 kV/W was obtained with a clock frequency of 200 kHz, and of 1.3 kV/W at 400 kHz. A minimum NEP of 7.3 nW/√Hz was obtained with a 400 kHz clock frequency, while at 200 kHz the NEP is 8.5 nW/√Hz. The presented THz measurements with 100 accumulation cycles at 200 kHz and 400 kHz clock frequencies show a SNR improvement after each operation cycle, which means 500 and 1000 measurements per second with on-off modulation of the source, respectively. A test structure containing only a FET detector and a bowtie THz antenna was used to evaluate the impact of the readout circuit in the FET THz detection.
The SPADnet FP7 European project is aimed at a new generation of fully digital, scalable and networked photonic components to enable large area image sensors, with primary target gamma-ray and coincidence detection in (Time-of- Flight) Positron Emission Tomography (PET). SPADnet relies on standard CMOS technology, therefore allowing for MRI compatibility. SPADnet innovates in several areas of PET systems, from optical coupling to single-photon sensor architectures, from intelligent ring networks to reconstruction algorithms. It is built around a natively digital, intelligent SPAD (Single-Photon Avalanche Diode)-based sensor device which comprises an array of 8×16 pixels, each composed of 4 mini-SiPMs with in situ time-to-digital conversion, a multi-ring network to filter, carry, and process data produced by the sensors at 2Gbps, and a 130nm CMOS process enabling mass-production of photonic modules that are optically interfaced to scintillator crystals. A few tens of sensor devices are tightly abutted on a single PCB to form a so-called sensor tile, thanks to TSV (Through Silicon Via) connections to their backside (replacing conventional wire bonding). The sensor tile is in turn interfaced to an FPGA-based PCB on its back. The resulting photonic module acts as an autonomous sensing and computing unit, individually detecting gamma photons as well as thermal and Compton events. It determines in real time basic information for each scintillation event, such as exact time of arrival, position and energy, and communicates it to its peers in the field of view. Coincidence detection does therefore occur directly in the ring itself, in a differed and distributed manner to ensure scalability. The selected true coincidence events are then collected by a snooper module, from which they are transferred to an external reconstruction computer using Gigabit Ethernet.
The fabrication of Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) in CMOS processes can be exploited in several application domains, including telecommunications, time-resolved optical detection and scintillation detection. CMOS integration allows the realization of systems with a high degree of parallelization which are competitive with hybrid solutions in terms of cost and complexity. In this work, we present a linear-mode APD fabricated in a 0.15μm process, and report its gain and noise characterization. The experimental observations can be accurately predicted using Hayat dead-space noise model. Device simulations based on dead-space model are then used to discuss the current status and the perspectives for the integration of high-performance low-noise devices in standard CMOS processes.
The design, simulation results and experimental characterization of a compact analog readout circuit for photon counting applications are presented in this paper. Two linear test arrays of 40 pixels with 25 μm pixel pitch have been fabricated in a 0.15 μm CMOS technology. Each pixel of the array consists of a Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD), a quenching circuit, a time-gating circuit and an analog counter. Each input pulse corresponding to a SPAD avalanche event is converted to a step in the output voltage. Along with compactness, the circuit was designed targeting low power consumption, good output linearity and sub-nanosecond timing resolution. The circuit features 8.6% pixel output nonuniformity and 1.1 % non-linearity. The gating circuit provides the sub-nanosecond window of 0.95 ns at FWHM. Consisting of a small number of transistors and occupying only 238μm2, this approach is suitable for the design of SPAD-based image sensors with high spatial resolution.
In this work, a compact low-cost system designed to detect low amounts of proteins in biological fluids is presented. The
system, based on time-gated fluorescence detection principle, is composed by a Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD)
pixel array, a LED excitation light source and a micro-machined reaction chamber coupled to a microfluidic network. A
dual-site binding strategy based on DNA aptamers is used for target protein recognition. The microreactor, composed of
an array of microwells covered with a transparent membrane, is functionalized with a primary aptamer, while a
fluorescent-tagged secondary aptamer is used for the detection. Preliminary measurements demonstrate the feasibility of
fluorescence lifetime detection to discriminate between different fluorophores. The detection of human thrombin protein
in 300nM concentration is reported as a biological proof of principle of the biosensor.
A high-speed and hardware-only algorithm using a center of mass method has been proposed for single-detector fluorescence lifetime sensing applications. This algorithm is now implemented on a field programmable gate array to provide fast lifetime estimates from a 32 × 32 low dark count 0.13 μm complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) plus time-to-digital converter array. A simple look-up table is included to enhance the lifetime resolvability range and photon economics, making it comparable to the commonly used least-square method and maximum-likelihood estimation based software. To demonstrate its performance, a widefield microscope was adapted to accommodate the SPAD array and image different test samples. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy on fluorescent beads in Rhodamine 6G at a frame rate of 50 fps is also shown.
A hybrid system, composed of a SPAD fabricated in a dedicated detector technology coupled to a CMOS readout ASIC,
is presented. The SPADs under test have an active area of 380 μm2, while the ASIC is built in a 0.35 μm CMOS
technology and has 16 readout channels, each one featuring an active quenching circuit and four time-gated 8-bit
counters, with programmable gate duration. In the paper we will discuss the Dark Count Rate, Gain and Afterpulsing
Probability performances with respect to relevant system parameters, such as Overvoltage, Off Time and Precharge
Time, as well as FLIM measurements with the system.
Imaging techniques based on time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC), such as fluorescence lifetime imaging
microscopy (FLIM), rely on fast single-photon detectors as well as timing electronics in the form of time-to-digital or
time-to-analog converters. Conventional systems rely on stand-alone or small arrays (up to 32) of detectors and external
timing and memory modules. We recently developed a fully integrated image sensor containing 32×32 pixels and
fabricated in a 130 nm CMOS technology. The chip produces an overall data rate of 10Gb/s in terms of time-of-arrival
measurements in each pixel. As opposed to conventional single detector FLIM systems, the present system can acquire a
full image, albeit at low resolution, without the need of an optical scanning system. As a consequence the complexity of
the optical setup is reduced and the acquisition speed is dramatically increased. We show the potential of this new
technology by presenting high time resolution (119 ps) TCSPC-FLIM images of pollen grains with acquisition times as
low as 69 ms. Furthermore, the low noise (~100 Hz) and high photon detection probability (up to 35%) ensure a good
photon economy over the visible spectrum. We believe that this technology will open the way to fast TCSPC-FLIM
recordings of transient signals in the bio- and life sciences, such as in neuron signaling.
In this paper a Time-Of-Flight range camera based on Current Assisted Photonic Demodulators is presented. The sensor,
fabricated in a 0.18 μm CMOS technology, features 120x160 pixel resolution with 10μm pixel pitch and 24% fill factor.
Pixel, camera and system architectures are described highlighting the most important design issues, and a selection of
experimental results is presented. The chip has a power consumption of 200mW, mainly due to the contribution of
modulation current. A range camera system was realized using the proposed sensor, a focusing optics providing a
23°x30° field of view, and a 3-LED illumination module delivering 140mW optical power on the target. The system is
capable of acquiring a stream of 7 3D frames/s with a maximum non-linearity of 3.3% in the range 1.2m-3.7m and a
precision better than 10 cm at 2m and 20 cm at 3m.
This paper presents the simulation modelling of a typical experimental setup for time-resolved fluorescence
measurement. The developed model takes into account the setup geometry, characteristics of light source, detector and
fluorescent sample as well as the adopted measurement technique. A qualitative verification of the model has been
reported before. In this paper, we present a quantitative analysis and verification of the system versatility. For this we
conducted time-resolved fluorescence measurements using a two-chip based micro-system, including a blue micro-LED
array as a light source and a CMOS SPAD array as a detector. The sample of interest (CdSe/ZnS quantum dots in
toluene) in a micro-cavity slide and an excitation filter were placed in the gap between the excitation and detection
planes. A time-correlated single photon counting module was used to build fluorescence decay curves. A range of
experiments with different excitation light pulse widths and using several setups have been performed. The simulated
data are in good agreement with measured results and the model proves to be flexible enough to simulate different light
sources and detector quenching/recharging circuits. This model can be used to predict qualitative and quantitative results
for specific experimental setups, supporting the explanations of observed effects and allowing the realisation of virtual
experiments.
Fluorescence lifetime detection is widely used in molecular biology to monitor many cell parameters (such as pH, ion
concentrations, etc.) and for an early diagnosis of many pathologies. In a typical fluorescence lifetime experiment a
pulsed laser is used to excite the fluorescent dyes and the emitted light is revealed by means of high sensitivity detectors,
typically: intensified CCD, PMTs or Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs).In this contribute we present a SPAD
detector module fabricated in a 0.35μm High Voltage CMOS technology to be used within a lab-on-chip system
consisting of a micro-reactor array for bioaffinity assays based on fluorescence markers. The detector module, having a
total area of 600 x 900 μm2, can be arranged to build a small pixel array to be directly coupled to the micro-reactors. No
emission filters are needed, since the ultra-short laser pulse is cut off in the time domain. The module consists of a
10x10-SPAD array, where each SPAD cell is equipped with dedicated active quenching and recharging circuit. Each cell
has a pitch of 26μm with a fill factor of 48%. The SPADs have been binned in order to realize a large photosensitive area
detector exhibiting a reasonably low dark count rate (DCR) and reduced dead time, as required in a fast measurement
system. A memory has also been implemented in order to enable only low DCR SPADs, so that a total DCR of about
100kHz can be achieved for the whole photosensitive area. The digital output generated by the SPAD array is sent to a
time-discriminator stage which allows a time-gated detection of the incident light. Two time-windows have been
implemented in this architecture. Their time width is controlled by an on-chip digital PLL locked to the external laser
clock whereas the width of the time-windows can be set within the range 500ps-10ns with a resolution of 500ps. Photons
detected within each time window are then counted by two 10-bits digital counters. Time-interleaved operation has been
implemented to read out the pixel data in parallel with the photon detection phase.
This paper describes a simulation model (implemented in MATLAB) of a typical setup used for time-resolved
fluorescence measurements, including: a laser source, basic fluorescence sample, optics, single-photon avalanche diode
and read-out electronics. The correctness of the model has been verified by setting up a simple time-resolved
fluorescence measurement using a CMOS SPAD-based detector. The solution of fluorophore (CdSe/ZnS quantum dots
in toluene) in a glass capillary was placed above the detecting surface and excited by laser pulses. We have used a time-gating
technique with 10-ns observation window shifted at 60-ps time steps across the appropriate time interval. The
observed curve corresponds to the convolution of the fluorescence emission and the 10-ns observation window.
Simulation accuracy has been verified by comparing the experimental fluorescence decay with the simulated one using
chi-square test. The proposed model allows researchers to simulate the behaviour of SPAD detectors with a good
accuracy and demonstrates how imperfections in the experimental system can affect the result. The model enables the
design of SPAD-based detectors with the best performance for a specific application area.
This paper reports on the development of an intelligent electro-optical device for the 3D detection of drive scenarios and obstacles recognition; the work is being carried out in the frame of a national program, under the acronym OPTO3D and involving Centro Ricerche Fiat, Istituto per la Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica and University of Trento. The system is finalized to automotive drive assistance functions, particularly to the pre-crash application. It is based on a new CMOS image sensor that enhances the passive 2D vision through the on-pixel integration of distance information, with high dynamic range. The 3D detection is based on a novel active imaging technique, derived from the time of flight concept. Novel intelligent processing algorithms support the objects recognition.
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