We report the implementation of a unique integrated coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS), second-harmonic generation (SHG), and two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) microscopy imaging technique developed for label-free monitoring of the progression of liver steatosis and fibrosis generated in a bile duct ligation (BDL) rat model. Among the 21 adult rats used in this study, 18 rats were performed with BDL surgery and sacrificed each week from weeks 1 to 6 (n = 3 per week), respectively; whereas 3 rats as control were sacrificed at week 0. Colocalized imaging of the aggregated hepatic fats, collagen fibrils, and hepatocyte morphologies in liver tissue is realized by using the integrated CARS, SHG, and TPEF technique. The results show that there are significant accumulations of hepatic lipid droplets and collagen fibrils associated with severe hepatocyte necrosis in BDL rat liver as compared to a normal liver tissue. The volume of normal hepatocytes keeps decreasing and the fiber collagen content in BDL rat liver follows a growing trend until week 6; whereas the hepatic fat content reaches a maximum in week 4 and then appears to stop growing in week 6, indicating that liver steatosis and fibrosis induced in a BDL rat liver model may develop at different rates. This work demonstrates that the integrated CARS and multiphoton microscopy imaging technique has the potential to provide an effective means for early diagnosis and detection of liver steatosis and fibrosis without labeling.
Liver steatosis/fibrosis represents the major conditions and symptoms for many liver diseases. Nonlinear optical
microscopy has emerged as a powerful tool for label-free tissue imaging with high sensitivity and chemical specificity for
several typical biochemical compounds. Three nonlinear microscopy imaging modalities are implemented on the sectioned
tissues from diseased livers induced by high fat diet (HFD). Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) imaging
visualizes and quantifies the lipid droplets accumulated in the liver, Second harmonic generation (SHG) is used to map the
distribution of aggregated collagen fibers, and two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) reveals the morphology of
hepatic cells based on the autofluorescence signals from NADH and flavins within the hepatocytes. Our results
demonstrate that obesity induces liver steatosis in the beginning stage, which may progress into liver fibrosis with high
risk. There is a certain correlation between liver steatosis and fibrosis. This study may provide new insights into the
understanding of the mechanisms of steatosis/fibrosis transformations at the cellular and molecular levels.
Pulse-modulated second harmonic imaging microscopes (PM-SHIMs) exhibit improved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) over conventional SHIMs on sensitive imaging and quantification of weak collagen signals inside tissues. We quantify the spatial distribution of sparse collagen inside a xenograft model of human acute myeloid leukemia (AML) tumor specimens treated with a new drug against receptor tyrosine kinase (ABT-869), and observe a significant increase in collagen area percentage, collagen fiber length, fiber width, and fiber number after chemotherapy. This finding reveals new insights into tumor responses to chemotherapy and suggests caution in developing new drugs and therapeutic regimens against cancers.
Monitoring liver fibrosis progression by liver biopsy is important for certain treatment decisions, but repeated biopsy is invasive. We envision redefinition or elimination of liver biopsy with surface scanning of the liver with minimally invasive optical methods. This would be possible only if the information contained on or near liver surfaces accurately reflects the liver fibrosis progression in the liver interior. In our study, we acquired the second-harmonic generation and two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy images of liver tissues from bile duct-ligated rat model of liver fibrosis. We extracted morphology-based features, such as total collagen, collagen in bile duct areas, bile duct proliferation, and areas occupied by remnant hepatocytes, and defined the capsule and subcapsular regions on the liver surface based on image analysis of features. We discovered a strong correlation between the liver fibrosis progression on the anterior surface and interior in both liver lobes, where biopsy is typically obtained. The posterior surface exhibits less correlation with the rest of the liver. Therefore, scanning the anterior liver surface would obtain similar information to that obtained from biopsy for monitoring liver fibrosis progression.
Liver fibrosis is the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins such as collagens, which may result in
cirrhosis, liver failure, and portal hypertension. In this study, we apply a multimodal nonlinear optical microscopy
platform developed to investigate the fibrotic liver diseases in rat models established by performing bile duct ligation
(BDL) surgery. The three nonlinear microscopy imaging modalities are implemented on the same sectioned tissues of
diseased model sequentially: i.e., second harmonic generation (SHG) imaging quantifies the contents of the collagens,
the two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) imaging reveals the morphology of hepatic cells, while coherent
anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) imaging maps the distributions of fats or lipids quantitatively across the tissue.
Our imaging results show that during the development of liver fibrosis (collagens) in BDL model, fatty liver disease also
occurs. The aggregated concentrations of collagen and fat constituents in liver fibrosis model show a certain
correlationship between each other.
We describe a simple fiber optic fluorescence spectrometry system with a wide variety of biomedical applications. This
low-cost, all-fiber system is portable, robust and has the capacity to acquire fluorescence spectra at rates up to 1 kHz. We
demonstrate the capabilities of the system by presenting experimental measurements of action potentials in the di-4-ANEPPS stained rat heart using spectral analysis.
We develop a standardized, fully automated, quantification system for liver fibrosis assessment using second harmonic generation microscopy and a morphology-based quantification algorithm. Liver fibrosis is associated with an abnormal increase in collagen as a result of chronic liver diseases. Histopathological scoring is the most commonly used method for liver fibrosis assessment, where a liver biopsy is stained and scored by experienced pathologists. Due to the intrinsic limited sensitivity and operator-dependent variations, there exist high inter- and intraobserver discrepancies. We validate our quantification system, Fibro-C-Index, with a comprehensive animal study and demonstrate its potential application in clinical diagnosis to reduce inter- and intraobserver discrepancies.
Liver fibrosis is associated with an abnormal increase in an extracellular matrix in chronic liver diseases. Quantitative characterization of fibrillar collagen in intact tissue is essential for both fibrosis studies and clinical applications. Commonly used methods, histological staining followed by either semiquantitative or computerized image analysis, have limited sensitivity, accuracy, and operator-dependent variations. The fibrillar collagen in sinusoids of normal livers could be observed through second-harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy. The two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF) images, recorded simultaneously with SHG, clearly revealed the hepatocyte morphology. We have systematically optimized the parameters for the quantitative SHG/TPEF imaging of liver tissue and developed fully automated image analysis algorithms to extract the information of collagen changes and cell necrosis. Subtle changes in the distribution and amount of collagen and cell morphology are quantitatively characterized in SHG/TPEF images. By comparing to traditional staining, such as Masson's trichrome and Sirius red, SHG/TPEF is a sensitive quantitative tool for automated collagen characterization in liver tissue. Our system allows for enhanced detection and quantification of sinusoidal collagen fibers in fibrosis research and clinical diagnostics.
We describe a simple fiber optic fluorescence spectrometry system with a wide variety of biomedical applications. This
low-cost, all-fiber system is portable, robust and has the capacity to acquire fluorescence spectra at rates up to 1 kHz. We
demonstrate the capabilities of the system by presenting experimental measurements of action potentials in the di-4-ANEPPS stained heart and the concentration of GFP tagged bacteria.
Optical fibers can deliver light to, and collect it from, regions deep in tissue. However, reported illumination and fluorescence collection volumes adjacent to the fiber tip have been inconsistent, and systematic data on this topic are not available. Illumination and fluorescence collection profiles were characterized with high spatial resolution for different optical fibers in tissue and various fluids using two-photon flash photolysis and excitation. We confirm that illumination and fluorescence collection volumes for optical fibers are near identical. Collection volume is determined by the core dimensions and numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber and the scattering properties of the medium. For a multimode optical fiber with 100 µm core diam and NA=0.22, 80% of the total fluorescence is collected from a depth of 170 µm in tissue and 465 µm in nonscattering fluid. A semiempirical mathematical description of photon flux adjacent to the fiber tip was also developed and validated. This was used to quantify the extent of temporal blurring associated with propagation of a wavefront of altered fluorescence emission across the region addressed by fiber optic probes. We provide information that will facilitate the design of optical probes for tissue imaging or therapeutic applications.
Fluorescence imaging techniques have been central to much biomedical science research over the past two decades. In particular, functional imaging has provided important new information about processes that occur at cellular and sub-cellular levels. With this approach, living tissues are stained with dyes whose emission is modulated by changes in the environment to which the dye is exposed. The fluorescence imaging systems used within this context typically incorporate relatively complex free space optical assemblies and a stable platform is necessary to maintain appropriate alignment of their components. Because of the poor efficiency of these systems, it is necessary to use powerful light sources and sensitive photo-detectors.
We have developed a novel fluorescence imaging system in which free-space optics are replaced by optical fibers, passive optical splitters and associated components. Solid state lasers are used as the excitation light source. A variety of detection systems have been utilized including a spectrometer. The feasibility of the approach has been established using a rat heart preparation stained with the membrane potential-sensitive dye, di-4-ANEPPS. Detailed emission spectra for this dye, at different levels of resting membrane potential, are presented here for 532 nm and 488 nm excitation. Cardiac action potentials obtained with the modular fiber optic system correspond closely to intracellular potentials acquired at adjacent sites in the isolated rat heart preparation.
Our modular fiber optic system is cheaper, more efficient, more flexible and more robust than conventional fluorescence imaging systems. Using a high-speed spectrometer for photodetection, it is possible to implement the signal processing required for multi-line or ratiometric imaging in software, which further enhances the efficiency and flexibility of the system. We believe that this approach has wide potential applications for biomedical fluorescence imaging.
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