Energy harvesting from oscillating structures receives a lot of research attention as these applications appear promising for the continuous energy supply of low power devices. Recent studies indicate increased power production of piezoelectric energy harvester configurations undergoing severe nonlinear vibrations, but the obvious drawback is the increased complexity of the coupled electromechanical dynamic response of the harvester. The current study focuses on the development of a robust and accurate numerical tool capable of modelling and design of such systems. This model is used to simulate the electromechanical response of composite strip structures equipped with piezoelectric devices subjected to nonlinear oscillations under compressive loading and near buckling instability conditions. The study is combined with experimental verification studies on a fabricated harvester prototype aiming to validate the numerical tool and to corroborate the electrical voltage generation on the piezoelectric devices. Additionally, a preliminary experimental study is performed to quantify the available electrical energy that is produced from the oscillating structure. Three different harvesting circuits are studied and their energy conversion performance is investigated. Measured results validate the developed numerical tool. Moreover, the increased electrical voltage and charge generation during the geometrically nonlinear oscillations as the prebuckling load increases, increasing also the available electrical power on the circuits, is illustrated numerically and experimentally.
The present paper investigates the nonlinear dynamic electromechanical conversion capability of axially prestressed piezoelectric strips, vibrating under transverse mechanical impulsive forces. A computational structural dynamics framework is adopted, comprising a mixed-field laminate plate theory together with an eight-node coupled plate finite element, that encompass nonlinear effects due to large rotations and initial stresses. The dynamics incorporate all linear and nonlinear coupling terms between mechanical and electric fields, and emphasis is given on the presentation and analysis of nonlinear stiffness and electromechanical coupling terms that affect the electric charge and energy in the piezoelectric devices. The resultant discretized equations of motion are finally linearized and solved using the Newmark implicit time integration scheme in combination with the Newton-Raphson iterative technique. Numerical evaluation cases investigate the nonlinear vibratory response and the electromechanical energy conversion capacity of prestressed vibrating piezoelectric strips excited by transverse impulsive forces. The effect of axial preloading and transverse dynamic loading on both the nonlinear dynamic electromechanical response and electromechanical energy conversion is quantified.
The present work aims to address open issues hindering the development of nonlinear wave modulation SHM/NDE methods for the detection of delaminations in composite laminates. Specifically, the mechanisms generating the nonlinear indices are clarified and the relationship of the latter with damage and wave parameters is investigated. A robust and computationally fast, time domain spectral finite element, containing high-order layerwise laminate mechanics is further extended to model delaminated composite strips. Contact mechanisms enabling impacts between the delaminated interfaces are included in the formulation. Simulations of high-frequency antisymmetric and symmetric ultrasonic wave propagation in Carbon/Epoxy strips with various delaminations sizes are presented. The simulations reveal complex nonlinear phenomena involving interactions between wave conversion and contacts in the delaminated region, which subsequently result in frequency harmonics in the dynamic response, manifesting the presence of delamination. The dependence of the generated harmonics and their modulation factor, to the type of assumed contact, the size of damage and the frequency/wavelength of the excited wave are further studied. Finally experimental measurements are used to validate the analytical conclusions.
Multiple applications of shape memory alloys (SMA) involve operation under partial transformation (PT), where reversal of the transformation direction takes place while the material is in a mixed phase state. Typical applications of SMAs include: actuators in adaptive/morphing structures which should repeatedly reach various target shapes or to follow time trajectories at higher time rates; dampers vibrating pseudo-elastically under varying amplitudes of dynamic loads. While the thermo-mechanically coupled behavior of SMAs under full transformation has been studied during the past and various models have been proposed, their response under PT has yet to receive the required attention to fully unravel the potential of these materials. In this paper, an experimental study of SMA wires under PT is presented along with a modified constitutive model. The physical constitutive model of Lagoudas et al.,1 is combined with a new expression of the hardening function to enable the accurate and efficient prediction of PT behaviour. The predicted PT response is correlated with isobaric, thermally induced PT cycle experiments. Very good agreement is obtained with measured partial cycles, especially for PT cycles formed near the middle of the major hysteresis loop. The new constitutive equations are included into a finite element framework to investigate the effect of PT on SMA actuation function in morphing airfoils for active load alleviation in large wind turbine blades, and numerical results are correlated with experimental data. The correlations prove the importance of PT behavior in the actuator performance of SMAs, resulting in substantially more accurate predictions in deformation, stress and temperature.
The paper proposes the diagnostic and prognostic modeling and test validation of a Wireless Integrated Strain Monitoring and Simulation System (WISMOS). The effort verifies a hardware and web based software tool that is able to evaluate and optimize sensorized aerospace composite structures for the purpose of Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). The tool is an extension of an existing suite of an SHM system, based on a diagnostic-prognostic system (DPS) methodology. The goal of the extended SHM-DPS is to apply multi-scale nonlinear physics-based Progressive Failure analyses to the “as-is” structural configuration to determine residual strength, remaining service life, and future inspection intervals and maintenance procedures. The DPS solution meets the JTI Green Regional Aircraft (GRA) goals towards low weight, durable and reliable commercial aircraft. It will take advantage of the currently developed methodologies within the European Clean sky JTI project WISMOS, with the capability to transmit, store and process strain data from a network of wireless sensors (e.g. strain gages, FBGA) and utilize a DPS-based methodology, based on multi scale progressive failure analysis (MS-PFA), to determine structural health and to advice with respect to condition based inspection and maintenance. As part of the validation of the Diagnostic and prognostic system, Carbon/Epoxy ASTM coupons were fabricated and tested to extract the mechanical properties. Subsequently two composite stiffened panels were manufactured, instrumented and tested under compressive loading: 1) an undamaged stiffened buckling panel; and 2) a damaged stiffened buckling panel including an initial diamond cut. Next numerical Finite element models of the two panels were developed and analyzed under test conditions using Multi-Scale Progressive Failure Analysis (an extension of FEM) to evaluate the damage/fracture evolution process, as well as the identification of contributing failure modes. The comparisons between predictions and test results were within 10% accuracy.
This paper considers new extensions to a three-dimensional constitutive model originally developed by Lagoudas
and co-workers. The proposed model accurately and robustly captures the highly anisotropic transformation
strain generation and recovery observed in actuator components that have been subjected to common material
processing and training methods. A constant back stress tensor is introduced into the model, which is implemented
in an exact form for simple tension/torsion loading as well as into a commercial finite element code to
perform a 3-D analysis of a Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) torque tube actuator subjected to different loading
schemes. Numerical correlations between predicted and available experimental results demonstrate the accuracy
of the model.
This paper investigates the potential of a non linear wave modulation SHM methodology with piezoelectric wafers as
actuators and sensors to reveal impact damage in cross-ply Glass/ Epoxy composite plates. In the experimental
procedure an electromechanical shaker and piezoceramic wafers are simultaneously used to provide the low and high
frequency wave excitation, respectively, while for the acquisition of the modulated carrier wave a piezoceramic sensor
was used. Two sets of piezoceramic actuators-sensor pairs are used to propagate the ultrasonic carrier wave into two
directions, one parallel and transversely to the fibers of the outer unidirectional ply. Nonlinearities induced by the
damage are detected as sidebands in the spectral components of the carrier signal. Experimental results quantify the
potential of the method in detecting damage created by very low energy impacts (4 Joules). Additionally, the modulation
factor of the sensor signal is proposed as damage index, and is shown to be a consistent and sensitive damage indicator in
the impacted plates, for a broad range of carrier wave frequencies.
This paper investigates the potential of a novel SHM method for the detection of delamination cracks in composites
which exploits the nonlinear ultrasonic response with in-situ d31 piezoceramic actuators and sensors. Composite beam
specimens with artificially created delamination cracks are tested, entailing two piezoceramic actuator patches, the first
to generate a low frequency, high power modal excitation and the second a high frequency acoustical wave, as well as a
piezoceramic sensor. Nonlinearities induced at the high-frequency signal, such as sidebands at the spectral components
as long as modulations at the measured sensory voltage are evaluated as damage indicators. Experimental results
quantify the potential of the method in detecting small delamination cracks through spectral sideband components. The
influence of high-frequency on the effectiveness of the method is shown. Additionally, the effect of the magnitude of
applied voltage on the low frequency actuator on the formation of spectral components is investigated. Finally, the
obtained results of the present method are compared with a guided wave based pitch and catch SHM method using the
same actuator-sensor pair to excite and monitor the propagation of the first symmetric and asymmetric Lamb waves.
In carbon nanotube (CNT) polymer nanocomposites (PNC), the formation of conductive CNT networks results in
electrical conductance and piezoresistive behavior. The latter occurs as applied strain affects the electric properties of the
nanotubes. Modeling of piezoresistive behavior is investigated in two discrete scales. At the nanoscale, where for the
prediction of the CNT piezoresistive behavior the Tight-Binding approximation is employed together with the Miller-
Good approximation. At the microscale where percolation is studied using both two- and three- dimensional models and
as well as the differences in resultant predictions. Numerical results at both scales are presented.
Guided Lamb waves can be excited in composite materials through piezoelectric wafer active sensors (PWAS) to detect
damage. PWAS are small, light-weight, inexpensive, and can be attached or embedded in composite structures. The
proposed paper will present a parallel effort on two analytical approaches for predicting Lamb wave propagation in
composite structures with surface attached PWAS. The first approach implements a layerwise mechanics theory and
finite element for laminated composite beams with transducers and delaminations. The second approach uses a transfer
matrix methodology (TM) and normal mode expansion (NME) to predict PWAS-plate interaction.
Wave propagation predictions are performed using 2-D layerwise beam theory approximating the in-plane
displacement, the through-thickness displacements and the electrical field as a continuous assembly of linear layerwise
fields through the thickness. The effect of delamination cracks can be predicted by the introduction of additional
degrees of freedom. Prediction of symmetric, antisymmetric and shear horizontal Lamb wave dispersion curves is done
for composite material structures using TM methodology developed by Nayfeh. NME technique is applied to predict the
PWAS tuning curves on composite plates; theoretical and experimental results are compared. Prediction of sensor
signals and local displacement curves through the thickness will be presented for composite structure.
Analytical formulations are presented which account for the coupled mechanical, electrical, and thermal response of piezoelectric composite shell structures. A new mixed multi- field laminate theory is developed which combines 'single layer' assumptions for the displacements along with layerwise fields for the electric potential and temperature. This laminate theory is formulated using curvilinear coordinates and is based on the principles of linear thermopiezoelectricity. The mechanics has the inherent capability to explicitly model both the active and sensory responses of piezoelectric composite shells in thermal environments. Finite element equations are derived and implemented for an eight-noded shell element. Numerical studies are conducted to investigate both the sensory and active responses of piezoelectric composite shell structures subjected to thermal loads. Results for a cantilevered plate with an attached piezoelectric layer are compared with corresponding results from a commercial finite element code and a previously developed program. Additional studies are conducted on a cylindrical shell with an attached piezoelectric layer to demonstrate capabilities to achieve thermal shape control on curved piezoelectric structures.
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