Thanks to the modern compound semiconductor growth and processing technologies, quantum wells
and related semiconductor nanostructures have been widely investigated for infrared-terahertz
devices. Here we propose a new general approach to make use of polar optical phonons in quantum
wells for infrared (IR) and terahertz (THz) detection. Polar optical phonons strongly couple with
both electrons and photons, and hence are potentially useful for photonic devices. As the first
example, we show the coupling of phonon and intersubband transition leading to Fano resonance in
photocurrent spectra. We investigate the phenomenon experimentally in specially designed
GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors. Finally, we discuss the future research and
potentials. Strongly coupled systems of electrons and phonons, i.e., polarons, may lead to new IR-THz
photodetectors.
Electronic transport in AlGaAs/GaAs THz Quantum Wells Intersubband Photodetectors (QWIPs) exhibits two
different regimes separated by huge discontinuities (up to five orders of magnitude) in the resistivity. They are
interpreted in terms of band structure reorganizations triggered by intersubband impact ionization. We will
analyze and model their in
uence on the electronic transport. The magnitude of the transport modifications is
explained by the small transition energy and the sharpness of the electrons distribution at stake in THz QWIPs.
Measurements under magnetic field or temperature show that the broadening of the electron distribution damps
the effects of impact ionization. Some experimental features of the electronic transport of shorter wavelength
detectors are then reproduced. The use of intersubband impact ionization in THz QWIPs to design high gain
and fast novel detectors is discussed.
Split-off band detectors have been demonstrated operating at or above room temperatures. However the specific
detectivity was somewhat low due to the high dark current. Increasing the barrier height can suppress the dark
current at high temperatures but results in a low responsivity due to the capture of carriers in emitters. A difference
between the heights of the barriers on the two sides of an emitter provides highly energized carriers injected into the
emitter and hence reduces the trapping effects. Three p-GaAs/AlGaAs samples with different Al fractions in the
graded barriers are used to test these effects. Due to the graded barrier, the samples have an asymmetric band
structure which makes it easier for excited carriers to travel in one direction than in the other. Therefore,
photovoltaic operation is possible due to the built-in potential under equilibrium. Preliminary results obtained from
these samples will be discussed.
This paper presents our research and development efforts in realizing and perfecting organic/inorganic photon
upconversion devices for wavelengths from near infrared (1.5 μm) region to visible light (green). The basic idea is to
integrate an InGaAs/InP photodetector with an organic light emitting diode (OLED), connected in series. The detected
photocurrent drives the OLED to emit visible light, thereby achieving the wavelength conversion. We have adopted new
strategies to improve the external device efficiency, including insertion of an embedded mirror and integration of a
heterojunction phototransistor (HPT) and an OLED. As a result, infrared optical upconversion is demonstrated at room
temperature with a built-in electrical gain of 15 from the HPT and an external upconversion efficiency that is improved
by one order of magnitude.
A Free Space Optical (FSO) link utilizing mid-IR Interband Cascade lasers has been demonstrated in
the 3-5 μm atmospheric transmission window with data rates up to 70 Mb/s and bit-error-rate (BER)
less than 10-8. The performance of the mid-IR FSO link has been compared with the performance of
a near-IR link under various fog conditions using an indoor communication testbed. These
experiments demonstrated the lower attenuation and scintillation advantages of a mid-IR FSO link
through fog than a 1550 nm FSO link.
Capacitance-voltage-frequency measurements on n+-GaN/AlxGa1-xN Heterojunction Interfacial Workfunction
Internal Photoemission (HEIWIP) detectors were used to analyze the effects of Al fraction induced heterojunction
barrier and its effect on the electrical characteristics at the heterointerface. The detector's IR threshold can
be modified by changing the barrier Al concentration. A sample with an Al fraction of 0.1 shows a distinct
capacitance step and capacitance hysteresis, which is attributed to N-vacancies and/or C-donor electron trap
states located just above the Fermi level (200 meV) at the GaN/AlGaN interface, with activation energies of
149±1 and ~189 meV, respectively. A sample with an Al fraction of 0.026 showed negative capacitance and
dispersion, indicating interface electron trap states located below the Fermi level (88 meV), most likely due to
C-donor and/or N-vacancy with activation energies of 125±1 and 140±2 meV, respectively. Additional impurity
related absorption centers were identified in both samples, however these shallow Si-donor sites (~30.9±0.2 meV)
did not affect the capacitance as these states were located in the barrier layer and not in the vicinity of the Fermi
level. The Al fraction in the barrier layer was found to significantly change the positions of the interface trap
states relative to the Fermi level, resulting in the observed capacitance characteristics.
We report on our development of both detectors and lasers in the terahertz (THz) region. For detection, we
focus on the approach based on the extension of the celebrated quantum well infrared photodetectors
(QWIPs); whereas the quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) provide the source. We show our preliminary
demonstration of free space communication using our detectors and lasers. An all photonic THz
communication link operating at 3.8 THz using a QCL and quantum well photodetector has been
demonstrated. The link consists of a quantum cascade laser transmitter and a quantum well photodetector
receiver. The link was used to transmit audio through two meters of room air. Carrier strength at the
photodetector was 100 times above the noise level measured. THz free space communication may be of
interest in satellite based systems.
We report work on several quantum structure based infrared detectors. We describe the concept and experimental
progress of the quantum well intra-subband photodetector (QWISP), which is closely related to the quantum-well
infrared photodetector (QWIP), but uses the dopant-assisted intra-subband absorption mechanism in quantum wells for
normal-incidence far infrared/terahertz radiation detection. We describe the concept of the submonolayer quantum dot
infrared photodetector (SML QDIP), and report experimental device results on long-wavelength infrared detection,
and imaging results from a mega-pixel focal plane arrays, which produced clear infrared images up to 80K. We
discuss how superlattice heterostructures, particularly those using unipolar barriers, can offer significant performance
advantages over homojunction superlattices in infrared detection. We also summary recent device results on a
superlattice heterostructure based barrier infrared detectors (BIRDs).
We have fabricated high-speed Interband Cascade lasers and provided the first experimental
evidence that these devices can be directly modulated at a frequency of 3.2 GHz and above. This
work has demonstrated suitability of IC lasers as a mid-IR light source for multi-GHz free space
optical communications links.
Semiconductor nanostructures, such as quantum wells and quantum dots, are well known, and some have been
incorporated in applications. Here we propose a new general approach to make use of polar optical phonons in quantum
wells for terahertz (THz) devices. As the first example, we show the coupling of phonon and intersubband transition
leading to Fano resonance in photocurrent spectra. We investigate the phenomenon experimentally in specially designed
GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors. Finally, we discuss the future research and potentials.
This paper reviews our research on photon upconversion devices for wavelengths from 1.5 μm to 0.87 μm. The 1.5 μm is
chosen for its importance for eye-safe active imaging; whereas 0.87 μm corresponds to the bandgap of GaAs which is the
active region of our high efficiency light emitting diode (LED). The basic idea is to integrate a 1.5 μm detector with a 0.87
µm LED, connected in series. The detected photocurrent drives the LED, thereby achieving the upconversion. Various
approaches of integration methods and device designs have been tested. The upconversion approach provides an alternative
to the standard hybrid integration with readout circuits and may be advantageous for some applications.
Semiconductor nanostructures, such as quantum wells and quantum dots (QD), are well known, and some have been
incorporated in applications. Here will focus on novel structures made of QDs and related devices for terahertz (THz)
generation. Their potential advantages, such as low threshold current density, high characteristic temperature, increased
differential gain, etc., make QDs promising candidates for light emitting applications in the THz region. Our idea of
using resonant tunneling through QDs is presented, and initial results on devices consisting of self assembled InAs QDs
in an undoped GaAs matrix, with a design incorporating GaInNAs/GaAs short period superlattice, are discussed.
Moreover, shallow impurities are also being explored for possible THz emission: the idea is based on the tunneling
through bound states of individual donor or acceptor impurities in the quantum well. Initial results on devices having an
AlGaAs/GaAs double barrier resonant tunneling structure are discussed.
Detection of both UV and IR radiation is useful for numerous applications such as firefighting and military
sensing. At present, UV and IR dual wavelength band detection requires separate detector elements. Here
results are presented for a GaN/AlGaN single detector element capable of measuring both UV and IR response.
The initial detector used to prove the dualband concept consists of an undoped AlGaN barrier layer between
two highly doped GaN emitter/contact layers. The UV response is due to interband absorption in the AlGaN
barrier region producing electron-hole pairs which are then swept out of the barrier by an applied electric field
and collected at the contacts. The IR response is due to free carrier absorption in the emitters and internal
photoemission over the work function at the emitter barrier interface, followed by collection at the opposite
contact. The UV threshold for the initial detector was 360 nm while the IR response was in the 8-14 micron
range. Optimization of the detector to improve response in both spectral ranges will be discussed. Designs
capable of distinguishing the simultaneously measured UV and IR by using three contacts and separate IR and
UV active regions will be presented. The same approach can be used with other material combinations to cover
additional wavelength ranges, e.g. GaAs/AlGaAs NIR-FIR dual band detectors.
We report on the progress of devices and applications of quantum-well photodetectors (QWIP) for the terahertz (~ 1-10 THz) spectrum region. We discuss device design and show that the device dark current can by effectively reduced by employing wider quantum barriers. We demonstrate several GaAs/AlGaAs QWIPs for different peak wavelength with background limited infrared performance (BLIP). We report experimental results on intersubband absorption spectra, measured using multi-pass waveguide geometry. We show that the experimentally measured intersubband energy levels agree excellently with the theoretical simulations, provided that many-body effects are taken into consideration, including exchange-correlation and depopulation effects. We report the results of QWIP photo-current spectra and detector responsivity. We discuss the high frequency capability of THz-QWIP and present experimental results of device time response measured using microwave rectification technique. We discuss its application in free space terahertz communication in combination with a terahertz quantum cascade laser (QCL). We discuss the terahertz to near infrared (THz-to-NIR) optical upconversion using a monolithic integration of THz GaAs/AlGaAs QWIP and NIR GaAs/AlGaAs LED, and its potential applications in terahertz imaging.
The development of quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) technologies for thermal imaging is well known. The high frequency and high speed capability is less known. Here we report on our recent advances of reaching over 100 GHz in heterodyne detection both at cryogenic and room temperatures. These advances may lead to new applications. One of such examples is free space optical communication.
The development of technologies in the terahertz spectrum or the very-far-infrared region has been slow mainly because of lack of convenient detectors and lasers. We report on the design and simulated performance of quantum-well photodetectors for the terahertz (1 - 10 THz). Quantum well, barrier, and doping parameters are optimized in terms of operating temperature, absorption, and detectivity. We also report on our experimental demonstration of GaAs/AlGaAs photodetectors with background limited infrared performance (BLIP). These devices are suited for a variety of applications, especially in conjunction with the newly developed THz quantum cascade lasers. One of such example is THz free space communication.
This paper presents our research and development effort in realizing and perfecting photon upconversion devices for
wavelengths from 1.5 μm region to 0.87 μm. The basic idea is to integrate a 1.5-μm detector with a 0.87-μm light
emitting diode (LED), connected in series. The detected photocurrent drives the LED, thereby achieving the
upconversion. Various approaches of integration methods and device designs have been tested.
Terahertz (1 - 10 THz) quantum-well photodetectors and quantum- cascade lasers have been investigated. The design and projected detector performance are presented together with experimental results on several test devices, all working at photon energies below the optical phonons. Background limited infrared performance (BLIP) operations were observed for all samples (three in total) designed for different wavelengths. For lasers, a set of THz quantumcascade
lasers with identical device parameters except for the doping concentration has been studied. The δ-doping density for each period was varied from 3.2 × 1010 to 4.8 × 1010 cm-2. We observed that the lasing threshold current increased monotonically with doping. Moreover, the measured results on devices with different cavity lengths provided evidence that the free carrier absorption caused waveguide loss also increased monotonically. Interestingly however, the observed maximum lasing temperature displayed an optimum at a doping density of 3.6 × 1010 cm-2.
Many applications are expected in the terahertz spectral region and terahertz technology is viewed as one of the most important ones in the coming decade. We report on the design and simulated performance of quantum-well photodetectors for the terahertz (1 - 10 THz) or the very-far-infrared region. We also report on our experimental demonstration of GaAs/AlGaAs photodetectors with background limited infrared performance (BLIP). The device dark current characteristics were optimized by employing thick barriers to reduce inter-well tunneling. BLIP operations were observed for all samples (three in total) designed for different wavelengths. BLIP temperatures of 17, 13, and 12 K were achieved for peak detection frequencies at 9.7, 5.4, and 3.2 THz, respectively. Furthermore, we discuss areas of improvement to make these detectors a viable technology.
InSb has been intensively studied in decades and widely used for fabricating high-performance devices because of its good chemical stability, low effective mass, high electron and hole mobility, and narrow band gap. The most important device applications for InSb are in thermal image sensing in the mid-infrared (3-5 μm) spectral range. The industry standard for fabricating InSb-based focal plane arrays for thermal imaging is based on indium bump technology to interconnect the InSb array to a Si-based readout integrated circuit chip. This hybridization is a "one-piece-at-a-time" process and thus time-consuming and costly. An alternative approach is to employ a device that up-converts mid-infrared light to a wavelength below 1 μm, which can then efficiently be detected by Si charged coupled devices. We reported herein such a mid-infrared optical up-converter based on InSb using wafer fusion technology. The up-conversion device consists of an InSb p+nn+ photodiode and a GaAs/AlGaAs LED, which were grown separately and wafer-bonded together. Experimental results demonstrated mid-infrared to 0.84 μm up-conversion operation at 77K. The measured LED external efficiency and photodiode responsivity show that an external up-conversion efficiency of 0.093 W/W was obtained. Effects of electrical gain and photon recycling inside this integrated device are discussed.
An InGaAs photodetector array interconnected with a silicon readout IC is the industry standard for 1.2-1.6 μm imaging applications. However, the indium-bump technique it employs for interconnection makes it expensive. An alternative approach is to combine a CCD with a device that upconverts 1.2-1.6 μm radiation to a wavelength
below 1 μm. Here we report the realization of a 1.5 μm to 0.87 μm optical upconversion device using wafer fusion technology. The device consists of an InGaAs/InP PIN photodetector and an AlGaAs/GaAs light emitting diode (LED). Incoming 1.5 μm light is absorbed by the InGaAs photodetector. The resulting photocurrent drives the GaAs LED, which emits at 0.87 μm. The PIN and LED structures are epitaxially grown on an InP and a GaAs substrate, respectively. The two wafers are wafer fused together, the GaAs substrate is removed, and the sample is processed using conventional microfabrication technology. In this paper, we first present the design and fabrication process of the device. We then discuss the approaches to increase device efficiency. We show, both experimentally and theoretically, that the active layer doping affects the LED internal quantum efficiency, especially under low current injection. An optimum doping value is obtained. The LED extraction efficiency is increased using several approaches, including micro-lens and surface scattering. Overall device efficiency is further improved by introducing a gain mechanism into the photodetector. Our results show the potentials of this integrated photodetector-LED device for 1.2-1.6 μm imaging applications.
Quantum well infrared photo-detectors (QWIP) have found numerous application
as sensitive fast photo-detectors. Applications for fast detectors include laser diagnostics, telecommunications and Compton scattering measurements. The high speed potential of QWIPs is enabled by a short carrier lifetime in the order of 5 pS. This short lifetime permit's design of a 40 GHz bandwidth detector. In this paper we report on the development of a QWIP with an integrated electrical co-planar waveguide. The QWIP is a 100 well structure that is almost completely absorbing over the wavelength range of 9 to 11 microns. Free space radiation at 105 GHz has been observed from these QWIPs, but devices made to exploit this speed have not yet been developed. It is necessary to integrate an electrical co-planar waveguide with the QWIP mesa. In this work we report on a QWIP fabricated with a gold air bridge to connect the top of the mesa to the center line of a gold co-planar waveguide. The co-planar waveguide is tapered to
allow direct connection to 2.4 mm and smaller electrical cable. Initial tests indicate that the device has a 40 GHz or greater bandwidth.
We present characterization of a surface micro-machined microbolometer featuring a number of unique features. The active resistor layer is amorphous GexSi1-xOy grown by reactively co-sputtering Ge and Si in an oxygen background. Complete control over Ge, Si, and O content using this technique allows control of both temperature coefficient of resistance and resistivity of the material, enabling optimization of material characteristics for bolometer applications. The resistor layer is combined with top and bottom NiCr metalization to form a tuned absorber for 10 μm radiation, eliminating requirements for additional absorber layers or for carefully controlled air gap thickness. Characterization of device noise and performance is presented.
Imaging devices working in the near infrared (NIR), especially in the so-called eye-safe range, i.e., around 1.5 mm, have become increasingly important in many military and commercial applications; these include night vision, covert surveillance, range finding and semiconductor wafer inspection. We proposed a new approach in which a wafer-fused optical up-converter, combined with a commercially available charged coupled device (CCD), functions as an infrared camera. The optical up-converter converts incoming infrared light into shorter wavelength radiation that can be efficiently detected by the silicon CCD (cutoff wavelength about 1 mm). An optical up-converter with high efficiency at room-temperature is critical for low cost and large-area infrared imaging applications. A prototype 1.5 mm optical up-converter based on wafer fusion technology has been successfully fabricated. The device consists of an InGaAs/InP pin photodetector and a GaAs/AlGaAs light emitting diode. Experimental results show that the end-to-end up-conversion efficiency is 0.0177 W/W at room-temperature, corresponding to an internal quantum up-conversion efficiency of 76%. In this paper, the design, fabrications and characterization of the optical up-conversion devices is presented. Issues related to device optimization, such as improving internal and external up-conversion efficiency, are addressed. Preliminary results demonstrate the room-temperature up-conversion imaging operation of a pixelated wafer-fused device.
KEYWORDS: Modulation, Quantum cascade lasers, Semiconductor lasers, Analog electronics, Eye, Digital modulation, Telecommunications, Data communications, Temperature metrology, Laser damage threshold
In this paper we present measured modulation responses on quantum-cascade lasers (QCL) up to 10 GHz. The obtained modulation response shows a flat response over the whole frequency range, proving the broadband capabilities of these devices. Even more striking is the absence of a strong resonance peak, which demonstrates the absence of relaxation oscillations, a feature which often limits the high speed performance of standard diode lasers. This property is quite attractive for use of these devices as high-speed data sources, particularly in applications where linearity is important. To address this possible application, the digital modulation properties of these devices were tested in a standard bit-error-rate-measurement at 2.5 GBit/s for cryogenically cooled QCL, showing the suitability of QCLs in digital as well as analog telecommunication application. In addition we present recent data showing bit error measurements and eye diagrams obtained for the pulsed mode operation of QCL near room-temperature.
HEterojunction Interfacial Workfunction Internal Photoemission (HEIWIP) detectors have been demonstrated with cutoff wavelengths λc up to 92 μm. One method of increasing the response in a desired range is to employ the cavity effect to create resonant maxima. Results are reported here confirming the presence of cavity enhancements in both the absorption and the detector response of HEIWIP structures at the 3λ/4 resonance. The detectors consisted of 13, 19 and 30 Be doped GaAs emitter and undoped Al0.02Ga0.98As barrier layers. Transmission and reflection spectra for multilayer GaAs/AlGaAs IR detectors in the range 2000-100 cm-1 at room temperature are presented. Comparisons with the calculated results based on free carrier absorption and interaction with optical phonons model are reported. It is shown that the absorption can be maximized by
using the resonant cavity effect. The use of the resonant cavity effect should allow the design of detectors with increased response in the desired wavelength ranges.
New and novel far-infrared photon detector concepts based on modern epitaxial growth and fabrication techniques are discussed. Simple analyses are carried out to compare the relative merits among three cases based on quantum wells, quantum dots, and free carrier absorptions. Typical results obtained on quantum dot detectors are presented and areas that need improvements are pointed out. Finally some comments are made on the realization of two-dimensional imaging devices.
The photocurrent noise has been investigated in Quantum Well
Infrared Photodetectors (QWIPs) having identical growth sequence,
layer width and composition, but different number of wells. It has
been found that the power spectral density exhibits characteristic
features related to the discrete structure of the device. This
behavior might be caused by the strong potential nonuniformity
arising as a consequence of the imbalance between the current
injected at the emitter and the stream of photoelectrons drifting
through the structure, which is also responsible for the anomalies
in the steady-state and transient photoconductivity. In the
present work, we will add further evidence to our preliminary
study by presenting results of the power spectral density obtained
by numerical solution of the continuity equation of the electrons
in the continuum state, with a discrete distribution of the
electric field in the active region, instead of the homogeneous one valid for conventional photodetectors.
This paper discusses issues related to the quantum dot infrared photodetector (QDIP). We attempt to address the following questions of what is its potential, what is lacking, and what is needed to make the device interesting for practical applications.
This paper discusses issues related to the imaging performance of pixel-less quantum well infrared photodetectors integrated with light emitting diodes. Our latest imaging results are shown. Analytical expressions are derived for evaluating noise equivalent temperature difference. Areas that need improvement are pointed out.
Quantum wells, especially those made of GaAs and InP related compounds, have enabled several unique infrared devices. A very successful example is the quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP). Thermal imaging using focal plane arrays (FPAs) based on QWIPs is the main established existing application. In a different direction, the intrinsic short carrier lifetime (approximately 5 ps) makes the QWIP well suited for high speed and high frequency applications. In such cases, since lasers are commonly used, a high dark current can be tolerated. The most important parameter is then the absorption efficiency. For system simplicity and potential wide use, near room temperature operation is desirable. An optimization study is carried out and reported here, using GaAs/AlGaAs QWIP structures. High absorption (approximately 100%) and up to room temperature operation are achieved in devices having high doping densities and 100 quantum wells.
Hui Liu, Chunying Song, Aidong Shen, Richard Dudek, Ming Gao, Emmanuel Dupont, Zbigniew Wasilewski, Margaret Buchanan, P. Wilson, Brad Robinson, David Thompson, Gail Brown, Frank Szmulowicz, James Ehret
Quantum wells, especially those made of GaAs and InP related compounds, have enabled several unique infrared devices. Two prime examples are quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP) and quantum cascade lasers. This paper discusses a few examples of QWIP related devices: (1) QWIPs are well suited for high speed and high frequency applications--work on achieving high absorption efficiency and high operating temperature has been carried out. (2) A variation of conventional QWIP structures can lead to simultaneous visible and infrared detection, and demonstrations using both GaAs and InP based structures have been made. (3) P- type structures may achieve competitive performance and lend to easy fabricating of large focal plane arrays, and good performance has been achieved in resonant-cavity enhanced p- QWIPs.
Results are presented for a novel HEterojunction Interfacial Workfunction Internal Photoemission (HEIWIP) far-infrared detector with a cutoff wavelength of 70 micrometers . A responsivity of 10.5 A/W and a D* of approximately 1013 cm(root)Hz/W at 20 micrometers was achieved at 4.2 K. Dark current for the detectors was 2 orders of magnitude better than for homojunction interfacial workfunction internal photoemission (HIWIP) detectors at liquid helium temperatures. Capacitance measurements show similar behavior to other infrared photodetectors such as HIWIPs and QWIPs. The overall superior characteristics of HEIWIP detectors over HIWIP and QWIP detectors at longer wavelengths are of interest for future developments in far-infrared applications.
The development of devices for mid-, long-, and very long- wavelength IR detection has benefitted greatly from advances in band-gap engineering. Recently, there has been great progress in the development of n-type GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photoconductor (QWIP) detector arrays in all three technologically important wavelength windows. P-type GaAs.AlGaAs QWIPS represent a viable alternative to n-type GaAs/AlGaAs QWIPs, offering the advantage of normal incidence absorption without the need for grating couplers. The maturity of the MBE of GaAs/AlGaAs layered materials offers the possibility of mass producing low cost, high performance, large size, high uniformity, multicolor, high frequency bandwidth, two-dimensional imaging QWIP arrays. This paper describes progress in optimizing the performance of p- type GaAs/AlGaAs QWIPs through modeling, growth, and characterization. Using the 8x8 envelope-function approximation (EFA), a number of structures were designed and their optical absorption calculated for comparison with experiment. Samples were grown by MBE based on the theoretical designs and their photoresponse measured. P-type QWIPs were optimized with respect to the well and barrier widths, alloy concentration, and dopant concentration; resonant cavity devices were also fabricated and temperature dependent photoresponse was measured. The quantum efficiencies and the background-limited (BLIP) detectivities under BLIP conditions of our own p-QWIPs are comparable to those of n-QWIPs; however, the responsivities are smaller. For our mid-IR p-QWIPs, the 2D doping densities of 1- 2x1012 cm-2 maximized the BLIP temperature and dark current limited detectivity by operating at around 100K. At 80K, the detectivity of the optimum doped sample was (formula available in paper)at 10V bias. Barrier widths greater than 200 A were sufficient to impede the tunneling dark current; resonant cavities enhanced absorption five-fold.
From a recent study of the growth and optical properties of quantum dots (QD's), we demonstrated that artificial atoms with sharp electronic shells can be fabricated with good control, using self-assembled QD's grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Size and shape engineering of the QD's during growth permits the tailoring of their intersublevel energy spacings. We demonstrate a much improved uniformity of the macroscopic ensembles of QD's, with well-resolved electronic shells. In addition to size and shape engineering of the QDS's in the case of single-layer samples, we demonstrate significant improvements in the uniformity of the vertically self-aligned stacked QD's. State-filling spectroscopy of the zero-dimensional transitions between confined electrons and holes demonstrates that the energy levels are readily tunable. One to five confined levels, with an inter-level energy spacing between 25 and 90 meV, are obtained by adjusting the growth temperature or with post-growth annealings. Such QD's having well-defined excited-states have been grown in the active region of devices and results will be presented for lasers, detectors, or for structures displaying optical memory effects. For example, QD laser diodes with well-defined electronic shells are fabricated, and shape-engineered stacks of self-aligned QD's are used to increase the gain in the active region. Lasing is observed in the upper QD shells for small gain media, and progresses towards the QD ground states for longer cavity lengths. We obtained at 77K thresholds for Jth=15 A/cm2 for a 2 mm cavity lasing in the first excited state (p-shell), and at 300K for a 5 mm cavity, Jth is ~430A/cm2 with lasing in the d-shell. For an increased QD density, Jth is smaller than 100A/cm2 at room temperature. For inter- sublevel transitions, we demonstrated broadband normal incidence detection with responsivity approaching 1A/W at a detection wavelength of 5 microns. For interband detection, the photoluminescence decay time of p-i-n diode can be changed from ~3nsec to ~0.3nsec (3Ghz) with a reverse bias. For Qds capped with less than ~10 nm, remarkable charge transfers between QD and surface states lead to optical memory effects lasting over time-scales of several minutes.
We propose and experimentally demonstrate a novel method which, for the first time to our knowledge, makes it possible to tailor the wavelength response of a waveguide grating coupler. Such grating couplers may be used to improve the efficiency of broad-band quantum-well infrared photodetectors and solar cells.
The recent development of p-GaAs homojunction interfacial workfunction internal photoemission (HIWIP) far-infrared (> 40 micrometers ) detectors for space application is reported. The emphasis is placed on the detector performance, which includes responsivity, quantum efficiency, bias effects, cutoff wavelength, uniformity, crosstalk, and noise. The results are promising and show that p-GaAs HIWIP detectors have high potential to become a strong competitor in far- infrared space applications.
This paper presents the recent developments of large area focal plane 'pseudo' arrays for infrared (IR) imaging. The devices (called QWIP-LED) are based on the epitaxial integration of an n-type mid-IR (8 - 10 micrometer in the present study) GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well detector with light emitting diode. The originality of this work is to use n-type quantum wells for large detection responsivity. From these structures, very large area (approximately equals cm2) mesas are processed with V-grooves to couple the mid-IR light with the QW intersubband transitions. The increase of spontaneous emission by the mid-infrared induced photocurrent is detected with a CCD camera in the reflection configuration. As demonstrated earlier on p-type QWIP structures the mid-IR image of a blackbody object is up-converted to a near-IR transformed image with very small distortion.
This paper present a novel idea of integrating a photodetector and a light emitting diode (LED) for wavelength conversion. The detector of interest here responds in the 1.5 micrometers wavelength region and LED emits in the near infrared (e.g., 800 - 900 nm). A proof-of-the- concept experiment has been conducted and presented here. The eventual application is to use this device in a focal plane imaging format for up-converting a 1.5 micrometers image to the near infrared then captured by a Si CCD camera.
This paper presents a few unique features and capabilities using quantum wells for infrared detection and imaging. We first review the basics and key shortcomings of quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs), and point out the possible directions for improvement. We then present the idea of the integrated QWIP and LED for optically readout imaging device. Discussions of different schemes of fabricating multicolor QWIPs follow. Finally, we present the high frequency capabilities of QWIPs.
A high performance, bias tunable, p-GaAs homojunction interfacial work function internal photoemission far-IR (FIR) detector has been demonstrated. A responsivity of 3.10 +/- 0.05 A/W, a quantum efficiency of 12.5 percent, and a detectivity D* of 5.9 X 1010 cm (root) Hz/W, were obtained at 4.2K, for cutoff wavelengths form 80 to 100 micrometers . The bias dependences of quantum efficiency, detectivity, and cutoff wavelength have been measured and are well explained by the theoretical models. The cutoff wavelength is modeled by a modified high density theory, and the quantum efficiency is predicted by scaling the free carrier absorption coefficient linearly with the doping concentration. The effect of the number of layers on detector performance and the uniformity of the detectors have been discussed. A comparison with Ge:GA photoconductive detectors suggests that a similar or even better performance may be obtainable.
This paper addresses the following topics at an easy-to- understand physics level. We present simple analytical formulas in estimating the performance characteristics of quantum well IR photodetectors (QWIPs), including detectivity and temperature for background limited IR performance. We identify key parameters and their relations to the detector performance. We point out possible directions for future work to improve the performance. Features and opportunities of the QWIP technology are also pointed out and discussed. The shortcomings are also discussed, including low operating temperature. A brief comparison with other IR detector technologies is made. Note that all discussions here apply to QWIPs based on GaAs using electron intersubband transitions.
A novel 48 micrometers cutoff wavelength ((lambda) c) Si far-IR (FIR) detector is demonstrated. Internal photoemission over a Si interfacial work-function of a homojunction consisting of molecular beam epitaxy grown multilayers is employed. The detector shows high responsivity over a wide wavelength range with a peak responsivity of 12.3 +/- 0.1 A/W at 27.5 micrometers and detectivity D* of 6.6 X 1010 cm (root) Hz/W at 4.2 K. The (lambda) c and bias dependent quantum efficiency agree well with theory. Based on the experimental results and the model, Si FIR detectors with high performance and tailorable (lambda) cs can be realized using higher emitter layer doping concentrations.
We have successfully fabricated intersubband GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors grown on GaAs-on-Si substrate and evaluated their structural, electrical, and optical characteristics. We have found that the performance is comparable to a similar detector structure grown on a semi- insulating GaAs substrate. The results are promising for applications in the important 8 - 12 micrometer atmospheric window.
We present results on p-type quantum well IR photodetectors (QWIPs) based on GaAs substrates, and discuss issues related to the optimization of their performance. Due to the fact that a p-QWIP allows normal incidence absorption, the simplicity in device fabrication makes it interesting for implementing a pixel-less imaging device based on the integration of QWIP and light emitting diode.
A high performance, bias tunable, p-GaAs homojunction interfacial workfunction internal photoemission far-IR detector has been demonstrated. A responsivity of 3.10 +/- 0.05 A/W, a quantum efficiency of 12.5 percent and a detectivity D* of 5.9 X 1010 cm (root) Hz/W, were obtained at 4.2K, for cutoff wavelengths from 80 to 100 micrometers . The bias dependences of quantum efficiency, detectivity, and cutoff wavelength have been measured and are well explained by the theoretical models, where the cutoff wavelength is modeled by a modified high density theory, and the quantum efficiency is predicted by scaling the free carrier absorption coefficient linearly with the doping concentration. The effect of the number of layers on detector performance and the uniformity of the detectors have been discussed. A comparison with Ge:Ga photoconductive detectors suggest that a similar or even better performance may be obtainable.
To investigate the cascade process, we study two sets of mid- infrared InAs/GaInSb/AlSb multiple quantum well electroluminescent devices. Each set has nominally the same device parameters, differing only by the number of periods. We find, as expected, that for the same driving current the larger the device period the more intense is the emission. We also find that the scaling is far from ideal. We correlate the deviation of the exact scaling with the variation of the wafer-to-wafer structural quality.
Intermixing of the well and barrier layers in quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs) can be used to realize a broadened spectral response as well as multiple color detectors. We describe die experimental results of both rapid thermal annealing (RTA) and laser annealing (LA) QWIPs operating in the 8-12µm regime. The peak spectral response of the annealed detectors was shifted to longer wavelength as compared to die as-grown detectors. In general, a decrease in detector performance after annealing is also observed which may be attributable to a change in the absorption coefficient caused by the out-diffiision of dopants during annealing. Recent advances in growth technology, complimented by innovative structures should offset any degredation in performance. Thus, the post-growth control of the composition profiles by annealing offers opportunities to fine tune various aspects of a QWIP’s response.
We propose a new concept for long wavelength infrared imaging using a pixelless up-conversion device together with a CCD camera. The concept is applicable to wavelengths longer than the CCD response range (longer than about 1.1 micrometer). We present experimental results which support the scheme for infrared imaging. Our first device consists of a long wavelength p-type GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) on top of which is grown a shorter wavelength InGaAs/GaAs light emitting diode (LED). Upon long wavelength infrared excitation of the QWIP, near infrared light is generated by the LED whose output is directed towards a commercial CCD camera where the up-converted image of the long wavelength infrared source object is formed.
We study the effect of high energy proton, alpha, oxygen ion, and gold ion radiation on the performance of GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors. The particle energies of proton, alpha and oxygen ions ranged from 0.8 MeV to 30 MeV and the fluences varied from 1010 to 1016 cm-2. The energy of Au ions was 1.5 GeV and the fluence ranged from 106 to 109 cm-2. Dark current and spectral response of irradiated devices were measured. For one set of samples, dark current noise and detectivity were also measured. A device operability defined by the fractional reduction of detector responsivity was used to evaluate the performance degradation. Device operability degrades with fluence for all particles. It also degrades with the mass of the ion and with the decrease in the energy of the particle.
Electroluminescence in the long-wavelength (6 - 8 micrometers ) spectrum region is observed from Sb-based type-II interband cascade quantum well structures. The device structures were grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaSb substrates and comprises many (15 for the first sample and 12 for the second sample) repeated periods of active regions separated by digitally graded multilayer injection regions. The devices have been operated at 300 K and 77 K with an output optical power up to 700 nW. The strong blue shift of the electroluminescent peak with the applied bias due to the Stark effect has also been observed.
We present a new concept for infrared imaging using a pixel- less up-conversion device together with a CCD. The concept is applicable to wavelengths longer than the CCD response range. A specific implementation using quantum well infrared photodetectors integrated with light emitting diodes is discussed in detail.
Nonlinear photoresponse effects at high excitation power in quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs) are studied both experimentally and theoretically. The photoconductivity nonlinearity is mainly caused by a redistribution of the electric potential at high power, which leads to a decrease of electric field in the bulk of the QWIP. As a result of the decreased field, the photoexcited electron escape probability and drift velocity decrease, resulting in a decrease of responsivity. These effects are strongly influenced by QWIP structural parameters and operating conditions. In QWIPs with a few QWs the IR power required to observe a decrease of responsivity is much lower than that needed to cause the saturation of the intersubband absorption. Key factors in designing a QWIP with a suppressed nonlinearity are discussed.
We report, for the first time, experimental FIR detector results based on p-GaAs homojunction interfacial workfunction internal photoemission (HIWIP) structures. The MBE grown samples consist of a multilayer (p+- p--p+-p--...) structure. The detector shows high responsivity over a wide wavelength range with a bias tunable cutoff wavelength ((lambda) c). Changing the emitter layer (p+) doping concentration (Ne) will result in different (lambda) cs. For a detector with Ne equals 3 multiplied by 1018 cm-3, an effective quantum efficiency of 9.2% (at 26.3 micrometer) with (lambda) c equals 100 micrometer is obtained. Various experimental results are discussed.
We report on the experimental results of the effect of proton radiation on the performance of quantum well infrared photodetectors. A range of energies from 0.8 to 10 MeV and a range of fluences from 1012 to 1016 cm-2 were used. The detector performance are characterized by its responsivity becomes progressively worse with increasing fluence. For the same fluence, lower energy causes more damage to the detector.
We propose and demonstrate the integration of a quantum well intersubband photodetector (QWIP) and a light emitting diode (LED) for making large two-dimensional focal plane arrays for thermal imaging applications. We combine the newly developed long wavelength infrared QWIP technology with the well-established near infrared LED technology both based on GaAs and related epitaxially grown alloys, such as AlGaAs and InGaAs.
We demonstrate the heterodyne detection of two CO2 laser signals offset in frequency up to 82.16 GHz using a multiple quantum well intersubband infrared photodetector. The high frequency is reached by down conversion using the detector itself as a microwave or millimeter-wave mixer.
Thermal imaging devices -- especially large two-dimensional focal plane arrays -- are useful for a wide rage of applications. A key factor that has limited thermal imaging mainly to military applications is the cost of the imaging system. The approach taken here to overcome the cost limitation involves the integration of a quantum well intersubband photodetector (QWIP) and a light emitting diode (LED) for making large two-dimensional focal plane arrays. The advantage of this unique new approach over the conventional one is that it uses a mature GaAs-based materials system and avoids hybrid bonding with Si multiplexer chips. A demonstration device has been made and is discussed here, with the QWIP operating at a peak detection wavelength of 9 micrometer and the LED emitting at 930 nm. The performance issues are also addressed.
Some recent results on GaAs quantum well intersubband IR detectors for the long wavelength infrared are presented. These include studies of a systematic series of samples grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) at three different facilities, and of multicolor detectors. In the first part, we compare performance of different detectors to address practical issues related to producibility using this new approach to infrared detection. We show that detectors made with specifications provided to several MBE facilities yield good results, which implies that these detectors are compatible with standard GaAs technology. We also show that the state-of-the- art GaAs-MBE layers are extremely uniform making this technology suitable for large focal plane arrays. In the second part, we apply the flexibility provided by the MBE growth technique in fabricating a voltage selectable multicolor detector.
Special electronic transport properties in superlattices (SLs) and quantum wells (QWs) give rise to both new physical phenomena and useful devices. Studies of carrier transport in superlattice and multiple quantum well (MQW) structures therefore have practical implications. There are different regimes for SL and MQW carrier transport. In this paper, we report on our experimental study of current-voltage (I-V), capacitance-voltage (C-V), and intersubband photocurrent vs. voltage (Ip-V) characteristics in a MQW structure having a coupled double-well period. Extremely regular periodic peaks in I-V, C-V, and Ip-V are observed in the coupled double well MQW. Hysteresis is displayed in all the measurements with respect to the voltage scan direction. A phenomenological model is used to explain the observed results.
The current status of GaAs quantum well intersubband infrared photodetectors are presented by briefly reviewing some examples of the detector structures and their characteristics. The uniqueness of this new approach to infrared detection is painted out by presenting the multicolor and high-speed capabilities.
Recent research activity in the long wavelength infrared spectral region has been driven by the wide range of possible applications for optoelectronic systems and by the wealth of new physical phenomena displayed by quantum well intersubband-based devices. GaAs-AlGaAs quantum well intersubband photodetectors are currently under intense research investigation, and promise to have a wide range of application. Here we first present a microscopic model of the detector dark current, which provides new physical insights into the mechanism of carrier transport in multiple quantum well structures. Systematic experiments have been carried out to compare with the model, and good agreement between theory and experiments is obtained. The model is based on considering the details of the carrier trapping and emission from quantum wells.
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