Holographic aperture masking (HAM) is an imaging technique in which a conventional telescope pupil is made into an interferometric array by means of a diffractive liquid-crystal phase mask. HAM allows for angular resolution that approaches and goes within the classical diffraction limit, while simultaneously increasing the throughput on the detector compared to traditional SAM, which uses a simple transmissive pupil plane mask. HAM creates interference fringes that provide phase and power information for each pair of holes in the mask, making the technique especially useful for the detection of close-in asymmetric structures surrounding stars, such as stellar or planetary companions, or protoplanetary disks. We present on-sky tests of an upgraded HAM mask installed in the Keck I OSIRIS imager. Observations were taken at J-band (1.28μm) of the known binary HD 44927 and single star HD 13249, the latter being used as a reference for calibration of instrumental errors. Using the SAMpy data reduction pipeline and modifying it for the Keck I HAM mask, Fourier observables were extracted and analyzed. We constrained astrometric and photometric measurements of the HD 44927 companion relative to its host star using a grid-fit companion model, producing orbital parameters to compare to previous measurements made with other interferometric imaging techniques.
The Keck Observatory began routine, facility-class science operations using natural guide star adaptive optics (NGS AO) in 1999 and laser guide star adaptive optics (LGS AO) in 2004. Keck has AO systems on both Keck I and Keck II that have remained scientifically productive while undergoing major additions and upgrades. Changes and improvements to the AO systems and instrument suite have kept Keck Observatory at the forefront of high spatial resolution astronomy. We present our AO operations model and discuss system metrics. Further, we present challenges we have met followed by the lessons learned over 25 years of operations.
The Real Time Controllers (RTCs) for the W. M. Keck Observatory Adaptive Optics (AO) systems have been upgraded from a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) to a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) based solution. The previous RTCs, operating since 2007, had reached their limitations after upgrades to support new hardware including an Infra-Red (IR) Tip/Tilt (TT) Wave Front Sensor (WFS) on Keck I and a Pyramid WFS on Keck II. The new RTC, fabricated by a Microgate-led consortium with SUT leading the computation engine development, provides a flexible platform that improves processing bandwidth and allows for easier integration with new hardware and control algorithms. Along with the new GPU-based RTC, the upgrade includes a new hardware Interface Module (IM), new OCAM2K EMCCD cameras, and a new Telemetry Recording Server (TRS). The first system upgrade to take advantage of the new RTC is the Keck I All-sky Precision Adaptive Optics (KAPA) Laser Tomography AO (LTAO) system, which uses the larger and more sensitive OCAM2K EMCCD camera, tomographic reconstruction from four Laser Guide Stars (LGS), and improvements to the IR TT WFS. On Keck II the new RTC will enable a new higher-order Deformable Mirror (DM) as part of the HAKA (High order Advanced Keck Adaptive optics) project, which will also use an EMCCD camera. In the future, the new RTC will allow the possibility for new developments such as the proposed ‘IWA (Infrared Wavefront sensor Adaptive optics) system. The new RTC saw first light in 2021. The Keck I system was released for science observations in late 2023, with the Keck II system released for science in early 2024.
The first scientific observations with adaptive optics (AO) at W. M. Keck Observatory (WMKO) began in 1999. Through 2023, over 1200 refereed science papers have been published using data from the WMKO AO systems. The scientific competitiveness of AO at WMKO has been maintained through a continuous series of AO and instrument upgrades and additions. This tradition continues with AO being a centerpiece of WMKO’s scientific strategic plan for 2035. We will provide an overview of the current and planned AO projects from the context of this strategic plan. The current projects include implementation of new real-time controllers, the KAPA laser tomography system and the HAKA high-order deformable mirror system, the development of multiple advanced wavefront sensing and control techniques, the ORCAS space-based guide star project, and three new AO science instruments. We will also summarize steps toward the future strategic directions which are centered on ground-layer, visible and high-contrast AO.
The SCALES instrument being developed at UC Observatories is designed to take spectra of directly imaged exoplanets in the thermal infrared (1-5 microns). The ability to switch from science imaging mode to pupil imaging mode to taking spectra at specific wavelengths requires precision mechanical subsystems to enable these different modes of operation at cryogenic temperatures. In this paper we discuss the design of a rotary stage that can position different Lyot masks, as well as different high precision metal optics to enable some of the broad functionality of SCALES. We will also review some of the analysis involved with validating the design, and specifics pertaining to the design of the precision mirrors mounted to this stage.
Liger is a next-generation near-infrared (0.81 - 2.45 μm) integral field spectrograph (IFS) and imaging camera for the W. M. Keck Observatory (WMKO) adaptive optics (AO) system. The instrument concept originated by coupling designs from WMKO AO instruments and the future Thirty Meter Telescope IRIS spectrograph. Liger is designed for the Keck I telescope to operate behind the upcoming Keck All-sky Precision Adaptive optics (KAPA) system. The imaging camera sequentially feeds an IFS that makes use of slicer assembly for the coarsest sampling (75 mas and 150 mas per spaxel) and lenslet array (14 mas and 31 mas per spaxel) for diffraction-limited sampling. The imaging camera makes use of off-axis parabolas and a Hawaii-2RG detector to achieve a 14 mas/pixel plate scale and 20.5"×20.5" field of view. The IFS offers a range of spectral resolving power of R=4,000 { 10,000 and yields large fields of view for an AO-fed IFS. Liger will enable new science by providing enhanced capabilities, including higher spectral resolving power, access to shorter wavelengths, and larger fields of view than any current or planned ground- or space-based IFS system. Liger will be able to unlock previously inaccessible science across a wide range of the cosmos, such as dark matter substructure, supermassive black holes, the Galactic Center, exoplanet atmospheres, and the time-variable Solar System. We present the overall design of the Liger subsystems and review unique science drivers.
Since the start of science operations in 1993, the twin 10-meter W. M. Keck Observatory (WMKO) telescopes have continued to maximize their scientific impact to produce transformative discoveries that keep the U.S. observing community on the frontiers of astronomical research. Upgraded capabilities and new instrumentation are provided though collaborative partnerships primarily with the Caltech and University of California instrument development teams and through additional collaborations with the University of Notre Dame, the University of Hawaii, Swinburne University of Technology, industry, and other organizations. This paper summarizes the status and performance of observatory infrastructure projects, technology upgrades, and new additions to the suite of observatory instrumentation. We also provide a status of instrumentation projects in early and advanced stages of development that will achieve the goals and objectives summarized in the 2023 Keck Observatory strategic plan. Developed in collaboration with the WMKO science community, the Keck strategic plan sets our sites on 2035 and meets goals identified in the Astro2020 Decadal Survey.
SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) is the next-generation, diffraction-limited, thermal infrared, fully cryogenic, coronagraphic exoplanet spectrograph and imager for W.M. Keck Observatory. SCALES is fed by the Keck II Adaptive Optics bench. Both modes use common fore-optics to simplify the optical design and have individual detectors, which are JWST flight spares. The imager mode operates from 1 to 5 microns with selectable narrow- and broadband filters over a field of view 12.3 arcseconds on a side, and the integral field spectrograph mode operates from 2 to 5 microns with both low and mid spectral resolutions (R∼ 100 to R∼ 7500) over a field of view 2.15 arcseconds on a side. The diamond-turned aluminum optics, most of which are already delivered, with the rest being fabricated, provide low distortion, low wavefront error, and high throughput for all modes. The slicing unit, located behind the lenslet array, allows SCALES to reach heretofore unheard-of spatially-resolved spectral resolution for exoplanet and disc observations from the ground with a coronagraphic integral field spectrograph. The SCALES consortium includes UC Observatories, CalTech, W.M. Keck Observatory, the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, and the University of Durham, with over 40 science team members. We report on the overall design and project status during its ongoing fabrication phase, which started in early 2023.
Images obtained with single-conjugate adaptive optics (AO) show spatial variation of the point spread function (PSF) due to both atmospheric anisoplanatism and instrumental aberrations. The poor knowledge of the PSF across the field of view strongly impacts the ability to take full advantage of AO capabilities. The AIROPA project aims to model these PSF variations for the NIRC2 imager at the Keck Observatory. Here, we present the characterization of the instrumental phase aberrations over the entire NIRC2 field of view and we present a metric for quantifying the quality of the calibration, the fraction of variance unexplained (FVU). We used phase diversity measurements obtained on an artificial light source to characterize the variation of the aberrations across the field of view and their evolution with time. We find that there is a daily variation of the wavefront error (RMS of the residuals is 94 nm) common to the whole detector, but the differential aberrations across the field of view are very stable (RMS of the residuals between different epochs is 59 nm). This means that instrumental calibrations need to be monitored often only at the center of the detector, and the much more time-consuming variations across the field of view can be characterized less frequently (most likely when hardware upgrades happen). Furthermore, we tested AIROPA’s instrumental model through real data of the fiber images on the detector. We find that modeling the PSF variations across the field of view improves the FVU metric by 60% and reduces the detection of fake sources by 70%.
We present evaluations of the Keck Telescope’s adaptive optics (AO) performance on Milky Way Galactic center imaging and spectroscopic observations using three different AO setups: laser guide star with infrared (IR) tip-tilt correction, laser guide star with visible tip-tilt correction, and infrared natural guide star with a pyramid wavefront sensor. Observations of the Galactic Center can utilize a bright IR tip-tilt star (K′ = 7.4 mag) for corrections, which is over 10 arcseconds closer than the optical tip-tilt star. The proximity of this IR star enables the comparison of the aforementioned AO configurations. We present performance metrics such as full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM), Strehl ratio, and spectral signal to noise ratio and their relations to atmospheric seeing conditions. The IR tip-tilt star decreases the median spatial FWHM by 31% in imaging data and 30% in spectroscopy. Median Strehl for imaging data improves by 24%. Additionally, the IR star removes the seeing dependence from differential tip-tilt error in both imaging and spectroscopic data. This evaluation provides important work for ongoing upgrades to AO systems, such as the Keck All sky Precision Adaptive Optics (KAPA) upgrade on the Keck I Telescope, and the development of new AO systems for extremely large telescopes.
We present the status and plans for the Keck All sky Precision Adaptive optics (KAPA) program. KAPA includes (1) an upgrade to the Keck I laser guide star adaptive optics (AO) facility to improve image quality and sky coverage, (2) the inclusion of AO telemetry-based point spread function estimates with all science exposures, (3) four key science programs, and (4) an educational component focused on broadening the participation of women and underrepresented groups in instrumentation. For this conference we focus on the KAPA upgrades since the 2020 SPIE proceedings1 including implementation of a laser asterism generator, wavefront sensor, real-time controller, asterism and turbulence simulators, the laser tomography system itself along with new operations software and science tools, and modifications to an existing near-infrared tip-tilt sensor to support multiple natural guide star and focus measurements. We will also report on the results of daytime and on-sky calibrations and testing.
We calculate an optical distortion solution for the OSIRIS Imager on the Keck I telescope, by matching observations of globular clusters to a Hubble reference catalogue. This solution can be applied to correct astrometric distortions in OSIRIS frames, improving the astrometric accuracy of observations. We model the distortion with a 5th order Legendre polynomial. The distortion we find matches the expected OSIRIS distortion, and has a fit error of 0.6 mas, but has large residuals of 7 mas. We are currently iterating on an improved reference frame to improve the residual. Additionally, we have installed the Precision Calibration Unit (PCU) on the Keck I optical bench, which will generates an artificial grid of stars for use in future distortion calculations.
We present the design of SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) a new 2-5 micron coronagraphic integral field spectrograph under construction for Keck Observatory. SCALES enables low-resolution (R∼50) spectroscopy, as well as medium-resolution (R∼4,000) spectroscopy with the goal of discovering and characterizing cold exoplanets that are brightest in the thermal infrared. Additionally, SCALES has a 12x12” field-of-view imager that will be used for general adaptive optics science at Keck. We present SCALES’s specifications, its science case, its overall design, and simulations of its expected performance. Additionally, we present progress on procuring, fabricating and testing long lead-time components.
Since the start of science operations in 1993, the twin 10-meter W. M. Keck Observatory (WMKO) telescopes have continued to maximize their scientific impact and to produce transformative discoveries that keep the observing community on the frontiers of astronomical research. Upgraded capabilities and new instrumentation are provided though collaborative partnerships with Caltech, the University of California, and the University of Hawaii instrument development teams, as well as industry and other organizations. This paper summarizes the performance of recently commissioned infrastructure projects, technology upgrades, and new additions to the suite of observatory instrumentation. We also provide a status of projects currently in design or development phases and, since we keep our eye on the future, summarize projects in exploratory phases that originate from our 2022 strategic plan developed in collaboration with our science community to adapt and respond to evolving science needs.
We present an analysis of the long-term performance of the W. M. Keck observatory laser guide star adaptive optics (LGS-AO) system and explore factors that influence the overall AO performance most strongly. Astronomical surveys can take years or decades to finish, so it is worthwhile to characterize the AO performance on such timescales in order to better understand future results. The Keck telescopes have two of the longest-running LGS-AO systems in use today, and as such they represent an excellent test-bed for processing large amounts of AO data. We use a Keck-II near infrared camera 2 (NIRC2) LGSAO surve of the Galactic Center (GC) from 2005 to 2019 for our analysis, combining image metrics with AO telemetry files, multiaperture scintillation sense/differential imaging motion monitor turbulence profiles, seeing information, weather data, and temperature readings in a compiled dataset to highlight areas of potential performance improvement. We find that image quality trends downward over time, despite multiple improvements made to Keck-II and its AO system, resulting in a 9 mas increase in the average full width at half maximum (FWHM) and a 3% decrease in the average Strehl ratio over the course of the survey. Image quality also trends upward with ambient temperature, possibly indicating the presence of uncorrected turbulence in the beam path. Using nine basic features from our dataset, we train a simple machine learning (ML) algorithm to predict the delivered image quality of NIRC2 given current atmospheric conditions, which could eventually be used for real-time observation planning and exposure time adjustments. A random forest algorithm trained on this data can predict the Strehl ratio of an image to within 18% and the FWHM to within 7%, which is a solid baseline for future applications involving more advanced ML techniques. The assembled dataset and coding tools are released to the public as a resource for testing new predictive control and point spread function-reconstruction algorithms.
NIRSPEC is a high-resolution near-infrared echelle spectrograph on the Keck II telescope that was commissioned in 1999 and upgraded in 2018. This recent upgrade was aimed at improving the sensitivity and longevity of the instrument through the replacement of the spectrometer science detector (SPEC) and slit-viewing camera (SCAM). Commissioning began in 2018 December, producing the first on-sky images used in the characterization of the upgraded system. Through the use of photometry and spectroscopy of standard stars and internal calibration lamps, we assess the performance of the upgraded SPEC and SCAM detectors. First, we evaluate the gain, readnoise, dark current, and the charge persistence of the spec detector. We then characterize the newly upgraded spectrometer and the resulting improvements in sensitivity, including spectroscopic zero points, pixel scale, and resolving power across the spectrometer detector field. Finally, for SCAM, we present zero points, pixel scale, and provide a map of the geometric distortion of the camera.
We present an analysis of the long-term performance of the W. M. Keck Observatory Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics (LGS-AO) system and explore factors that influence the overall AO performance most strongly. Astronomical surveys can take years or decades to finish, so it is worthwhile to characterize the AO performance on such timescales in order to better understand future results. Keck Observatory has two of the longest-running LGS-AO systems in use today and represents an excellent test-bed for investigating large amounts of AO data. Here, we use LGS-AO observations of the Galactic Center (GC) from 2005 to 2019, all taken with the NIRC2 instrument on the Keck-II telescope, for our analysis. We combine image metrics with AO telemetry files, MASS/DIMM turbulence profiles, seeing information, and weather data in one cohesive dataset to highlight areas of potential performance improvement and train a simple machine learning algorithm to predict the delivered image quality given current atmospheric conditions. The complete dataset will be released to the public as a resource for testing new predictive control and PSF-reconstruction algorithms.
PSF knowledge is central to extract science from observations with adaptive optics.
However, it is often challenging to have a good PSF estimate. For instance, this is a problem for the integral field unit (IFU) OSIRIS at Keck Observatory. OSIRIS has a field of only few arcseconds, and it is often impossible to obtain a good empirical PSF. OSIRIS is equipped with an imager designed to track changes in the PSF on a reference star. However, the imager is 20 arcseconds away, which prevents to apply the observed PSF directly to spectroscopic data.
We developed a new software package to predict PSF variability for Keck AO images (AIROPA, see Paolo Turri’s contribution, this conference). To properly use the parallel imager to predict a PSF on the IFU, we adapted the code to the OSIRIS case (AIROPA-IFU).
Here, we present results of the application of this post-processing tools to Galactic Center observation. We also discuss the challenges encountered and the lessons learned when doing PSF
Liger is a next-generation near-infrared imager and integral field spectrograph (IFS) for the W.M. Keck Obser- vatory designed to take advantage of the Keck All-Sky Precision Adaptive Optics (KAPA) upgrade. Liger will operate at spectral resolving powers between R~4,000 - 10,000 over a wavelength range of 0.8-2.4µm. Liger takes advantage of a sequential imager and spectrograph design that allows for simultaneous observations between the two channels using the same filter wheel and cold pupil stop. We present the design for the filter wheels and pupil mask and their location and tolerances in the optical design. The filter mechanism is a multi-wheel de- sign drawing from the heritage of the current Keck/OSIRIS imager single wheel design. The Liger multi-wheel configuration is designed to allow future upgrades to the number and range of filters throughout the life of the instrument. The pupil mechanism is designed to be similarly upgradeable with the option to add multiple pupil mask options. A smaller wheel mechanism allows the user to select the desired pupil mask with open slots being designed in for future upgrade capabilities. An ideal pupil would match the shape of the image formed of the primary and would track its rotation. For different pupil shapes without tracking we model the additional exposure time needed to achieve the same signal to noise of an ideal pupil and determine that a set of fixed masks of different shapes provides a mechanically simpler system with little compromise in performance.
Liger is a next generation adaptive optics (AO) fed integral field spectrograph (IFS) and imager for the W. M. Keck Observatory. This new instrument is being designed to take advantage of the upgraded AO system provided by Keck All-Sky Precision Adaptive-optics (KAPA). Liger will provide higher spectral resolving power (R~4,000- 10,000), wider wavelength coverage ( 0.8-2.4 µm), and larger fields of view than any current IFS. We present the design and analysis for a custom-made dewar chamber for characterizing the Liger opto-mechanical system. This dewar chamber is designed to test and assemble the Liger imaging camera and slicer IFS components while being adaptable for future experiments. The vacuum chamber will operate below 10−5 Torr with a cold shield that will be kept below 90 K. The dewar test chamber will be mounted to an optical vibration isolation platform and further isolated from the cryogenic and vacuum systems with bellows. The cold head and vacuums will be mounted to a custom cart that will also house the electronics and computer that interface with the experiment. This test chamber will provide an efficient means of calibrating and characterizing the Liger instrument and performing future experiments.
SCALES (Santa Cruz Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) is a 2-5 micron high-contrast lenslet integral-field spectrograph (IFS) driven by exoplanet characterization science requirements and will operate at W. M. Keck Observatory. Its fully cryogenic optical train uses a custom silicon lenslet array, selectable coronagraphs, and dispersive prisms to carry out integral field spectroscopy over a 2.2 arcsec field of view at Keck with low (< 300) spectral resolution. A small, dedicated section of the lenslet array feeds an image slicer module that allows for medium spectral resolution (5000 10000), which has not been available at the diffraction limit with a coronagraphic instrument before. Unlike previous IFS exoplanet instruments, SCALES is capable of characterizing cold exoplanet and brown dwarf atmospheres (< 600 K) at bandpasses where these bodies emit most of their radiation while capturing relevant molecular spectral features.
The new Keck Observatory Telescope Control System is now deployed for regular operations on Keck 2 and the deployment on both telescopes, Keck 1 and Keck 2, is expected to be completed by the time this paper is published. Two new instruments, KCWI and NIRES, were commissioned with the new control system on Keck 2. The upgrade project was a major undertaking replacing the original software architecture and modules, as well as many obsolete hardware components. During the long testing phase, we discovered deficiencies, which we corrected with modifications of the original design. This paper gives a summary of the achieved performance, the issues involving deploying a new system while remaining in full operation, and lessons learned in design and implementation of such a large system.
The integral field spectrograph OSIRIS at Keck I has been used to measure the motion of the stars around the supermassive black hole at the Center of the Galaxy. The small field of view provided and the crowding of the region prevent any good PSF estimate. A parallel imager can be used simultaneously to the IFU. However, its distance of 19 arcseconds prevents the observed PSF to be directly applied to the IFU because of anisoplanatism and instrumental aberrations. The Galactic Center Group at UCLA has developed an algorithms to predict PSF variability for Keck AO images (Off-axis PSF reconstruction, AIROPA software package). AIROPA allows us to use the parallel imager to correctly predict the IFU’s PSF. We modified this package to adapt it to the case of OSIRIS imager and IFU (AIROPA-IFU) and characterized the instrumental aberrations of both detectors. Here, we present preliminary results of the application of this post-processing tool to OSIRIS datasets of the Galactic Center.
KEYWORDS: Point spread functions, Imaging systems, Stars, Spectrographs, Signal to noise ratio, Adaptive optics, Atmospheric modeling, Data modeling, Astronomy
Knowledge of the point spread function (PSF) is critical to many astronomical science cases. However, the PSF can be very difficult to estimate for cases where there are many crowded point sources or for observations of extended objects. Additionally, for adaptive optics observations, the PSF can be very complex with both spatial and temporal variability in the PSF. Integral-field spectroscopy behind adaptive optics is especially challenging because the fields of view are typically too small to sample the halo for even a single PSF. Here, we present a method for semi-empirical PSF reconstruction for integral field spectrographs using a combination of point source observations on a parallel imager, instrumental aberration measurements, and atmospheric turbulence profiles. This work builds upon the PSF reconstruction project AIROPA designed for imaging and extending it to IFU work (AIROPA-IFU). By using empirical calibrators from the parallel imager, which has a much larger field of view, and accounting for anisoplantic effects and instrumental aberrations, we can predict the PSF on the spectrograph. An important aspect is being able to predict the PSF at many different wavelengths based on observations from broad-band imaging. Here, we discuss how science cases such as observations of stars at the Galactic center can benefit from this method. We also establish metrics to quantitatively assess the performance of PSF reconstruction. We show that for bright stars, AIROPA-IFU can produce spectra with signal to noise ratio 50% higher than with simple aperture extraction of a data cube.
Characterization of an instrument’s detector is an essential part of assessing the overall performance and ca- pabilities of an instrument. We present our efforts to characterize the HAWAII-2RG detector on the imager component of the OSIRIS instrument at W. M. Keck Observatory. In particular, we will report the detector’s read noise, dark current, linearity, and persistence. We find a gain of 2.16 ± 0.34, in good agreement with Teledyne’s reported gain of 2.15. The maximum read noise of the detector is 23.4 ± 1.3 e- decreasing with an increasing number of reads. We find an upper limit on the dark current of the detector to be < 0.021 e-/pix/s. The detector is also linear to the 1% level up to 44,500 e- and to the 5% level at 80,000 e-. The maximum well depth is measured to be 119,000 e-.
Since the start of operations in 1993, the twin 10 meter W. M. Keck Observatory telescopes have continued to maximize their scientific impact and to produce transformative discoveries that keep the observing community on the frontiers of astronomical research. Upgraded capabilities and new instrumentation are provided though collaborative partnerships with Caltech and UC instrument development teams. The observatory adapts and responds to the observers’ evolving needs as defined in the observatory’s strategic plan, periodically refreshed in collaboration with the science community. This paper summarizes the performance of recently commissioned infrastructure projects, technology upgrades, and new additions to the suite of instrumentation at the observatory. We will also provide a status of projects currently in the design or development phase, and since we need to keep our eye on the future, we mention projects in exploratory phases that originate from our strategic plan. Recently commissioned projects include telescope control system upgrades, OSIRIS spectrometer and imager upgrades, and deployments of the Keck Cosmic Web Imager (KCWI), the Near-Infrared Echellette Spectrometer (NIRES), and the Keck I Deployable Tertiary Mirror (KIDM3). Under development are upgrades to the NIRSPEC instrument and adaptive optics (AO) system. Major instrumentation in design phases include the Keck Cosmic Reionization Mapper and the Keck Planet Finder. Future instrumentation studies and proposals underway include a Ground Layer Adaptive Optics system, NIRC2 upgrades, the energy sensitive instrument KRAKENS, an integral field spectrograph LIGER, and a laser tomography AO upgrade. Last, we briefly discuss recovering MOSFIRE and its return to science operations.
KEYWORDS: Point spread functions, Adaptive optics, Photometry, General relativity, Sensors, Data modeling, Stars, Optical transfer functions, Atmospheric modeling, Instrument modeling
General relativity can be tested in the strong gravity regime by monitoring stars orbiting the supermassive black hole at the Galactic Center with adaptive optics. However, the limiting source of uncertainty is the spatial PSF variability due to atmospheric anisoplanatism and instrumental aberrations. The Galactic Center Group at UCLA has completed a project developing algorithms to predict PSF variability for Keck AO images. We have created a new software package (AIROPA), based on modified versions of StarFinder and Arroyo, that takes atmospheric turbulence profiles, instrumental aberration maps, and images as inputs and delivers improved photometry and astrometry on crowded fields. This software package will be made publicly available soon.
We present the results of the upgrade of the spectrograph detector in the integral field spectrograph, OSIRIS. OSIRIS is a near-infrared (1 to 2.5 microns) integral field spectrograph on the Keck I telescope. This instrument produces up to 3,000 spectra simultaneously over a contiguous rectangular field of view with a spectral resolution of ~3,800. OSIRIS works with the Keck Adaptive Optics system to achieve diffraction-limited spatial resolution and has four plate scales ranging from 0.02 to 0.10 arcseconds. At first light in 2005, the spectrograph portion of the instrument was equipped with a Rockwell Hawaii-2 detector. We have now upgraded this to a Teledyne Hawaii-2RG (H2RG) with lower read noise, lower dark current, and higher quantum efficiency. In addition to the upgraded detector, we also mounted the detector head on a linear stage, allowing the position of the detector to be accurately adjusted along the optical path when the instrument is at cryogenic temperatures (~80 K). This reduced the number of cool downs required to put the detector image plane at the spectrograph camera focus and adjust any residual tip/tilt of the detector image plane. We present the results of commissioning the new detector and the improved sensitivities of the OSIRIS instrument due to this upgrade.
The design and performance of astronomical instruments depend critically on the total system throughput as well as the background emission from the sky and instrumental sources. In designing a pupil stop for background- limited imaging, one seeks to balance throughput and background rejection to optimize measurement signal-to-noise ratios. Many sources affect transmission and emission in infrared imaging behind the Keck Observatory’s adaptive optics systems, such as telescope segments, segment gaps, secondary support structure, and AO bench optics. Here we describe an experiment, using the pupil-viewing mode of NIRC2, to image the pupil plane as a function of wavelength. We are developing an empirical model of throughput and background emission as a function of position in the pupil plane. This model will be used in part to inform the optimal design of cold pupils in future instruments, such as the new imaging camera for OSIRIS.
Pointing and tracking performance is one of the key metrics that characterize a telescope's overall efficiency. The pointing performance of the Keck telescopes, which use rotary friction encoders to provide position feedback to the control system, has been surpassed by newer large telescopes with more precise encoder systems. While poor tracking can be compensated with guiding, poor blind pointing performance can lead to loss of observing time. In this paper we present a history of the efforts to reduce the impact of poor pointing, as well as the improvements achieved after the installation of new tape encoders. We will discuss the calibration and testing methods and the tools for monitoring and maintaining the desired pointing performance. A comparative analysis of the pointing performance before and after the telescope control system upgrade will also be presented.
The Multi-Object Spectrograph for Infrared Exploration (MOSFIRE) achieved first light on the W. M. Keck Observatory’s Keck I telescope on 4 April 2012 and quickly became the most popular Keck I instrument. One of the primary reasons for the instrument’s popularity is that it uses a configurable slitmask unit developed by the Centre Suisse d’Electronique et Microtechnique (CSEM SA) to isolate the light from up to 46 objects simultaneously. In collaboration with the instrument development team and CSEM engineers, the Keck observatory staff present how MOSFIRE is successfully used, and we identify what contributed to routine and trouble free nighttime operations.
The sky coverage and performance of Laser Guide Star (LGS) adaptive optics (AO) systems is limited by the Natural Guide Star (NGS) used for low order correction (tip-tilt and defocus modes). This limitation can be reduced by measuring image motion of the NGS in the near-infrared where it is partially corrected by the LGS AO system and where stars are generally several magnitudes brighter than at visible wavelengths. We have integrated a Near-InfraRed Tip-Tilt Sensor (NIRTTS) with the Keck I telescopes LGS AO system. The sensor is a H2RG-based near-infrared camera with 0.05 arcsecond pixels. Low noise at high sample rates is achieved by only reading a small region of interest, from 2x2 to 16x16 pixels, centered on an NGS anywhere in an 100 arc second diameter field. The sensor operates at either Ks or H-band using light reflected by a choice of dichroic beam-splitters located in front of the OSIRIS integral field spectrograph. The implementation of the NIRTTS involved modifications to the AO bench, real-time control system, higher-level controls and operations software. NIRTTS is nearly ready for science operation in shared-risk mode. We are also implementing a number of enhancements to the NIRTTS system which involve substantial changes to the operations software. This work presents an update of the work performed since the NIRTTS system was reported in Ref. 1 and Ref. 2.
We present a model of field-dependent aberrations arising in the NIRC2 instrument on the W. M. Keck II telescope. We use high signal-to-noise phase diversity data employing a source in the Nasmyth focal plane to construct a model of the optical path difference as a function of field position and wavelength. With a differential wavefront error of up to 190 nm, this effect is one of the main sources of astrometric and photometric measurement uncertainties. Our tests of temporal stability show sufficient reliability for our measurements over a 20-month period at the field extrema. Additionally, while chromaticity exists, applying a correction for field-dependent aberrations provides overall improvement compared to the existing aberrations present across the field of view.
The sky coverage and performance of laser guide star (LGS) adaptive optics (AO) systems is limited by the natural guide star (NGS) used for low order correction. This limitation can be dramatically reduced by measuring the tip and tilt of the NGS in the near-infrared where the NGS is partially corrected by the LGS AO system and where stars are generally several magnitudes brighter than at visible wavelengths. We present the design of a near-infrared tip-tilt sensor that has recently been integrated with the Keck I telescope’s LGS AO system along with some initial on-sky results. The implementation involved modifications to the AO bench, real-time control system, and higher level controls and operations software that will also be discussed. The tip-tilt sensor is a H2RG-based near-infrared camera with 0.05 arc second pixels. Low noise at high sample rates is achieved by only reading a small region of interest, from 2×2 to 16×16 pixels, centered on an NGS anywhere in the 100 arc second diameter field. The sensor operates at either Ks or H-band using light reflected by a choice of dichroic beamsplitters located in front of the OSIRIS integral field spectrograph.
Laser Guide Star (LGS) facilities for adaptive optics (AO) have been in routine scientific operation on the Keck II and Keck I telescopes since 2004 and 2012, respectively. Two upgrades are currently in process for the Keck II LGS facility: moving the launch of the laser from the side of the Keck telescope to behind the secondary mirror and replacing the existing dye laser with a Raman-fiber amplifier (RFA) laser. Both of these upgrades are on the path to a multi-LGS facility for Keck’s next generation AO (NGAO) system. We will discuss the performance and operations experience with the existing LGS facilities with an emphasis on the newer Keck I LGS facility, the recently implemented Keck II center launch system and its initial on-sky results, the progress on the design and implementation of the new fiber laser, and the plans for a multi-LGS facility for NGAO.
With the commencement of shared-risk science observations in May 2012, the Keck I laser guide star (LGS) adaptive
optics (AO) system is the second LGS AO system to be commissioned at the W. M. Keck Observatory. This paper
reports on the Keck I LGS AO system itself and some of the initial performance results. The Keck I system differs from
the Keck II system primarily with regards to the laser and a beam transport system which projects the laser from behind
the telescope’s secondary mirror. The existing OSIRIS science instrument has been integrated with the Keck I system.
We report on the preliminary design of W.M. Keck Observatory's (WMKO's) next-generation adaptive optics (NGAO)
facility. This facility is designed to address key science questions including understanding the formation and evolution
of today's galaxies, measuring dark matter in our galaxy and beyond, testing the theory of general relativity in the
Galactic Center, understanding the formation of planetary systems around nearby stars, and exploring the origins of our
own solar system. The requirements derived from these science questions have resulted in NGAO being designed to
have near diffraction-limited performance in the near-IR (K-Strehl ~ 80%) over narrow fields (< 30" diameter) with
modest correction down to ~ 700 nm, high sky coverage, improved sensitivity and contrast and improved photometric
and astrometric accuracy. The resultant key design features include multi-laser tomography to measure the wavefront
and correct for the cone effect, open loop AO-corrected near-IR
tip-tilt sensors with MEMS deformable mirrors (DMs)
for high sky coverage, a high order MEMS DM for the correction of atmospheric and telescope static errors to support
high Strehls and high contrast companion sensitivity, point spread function (PSF) calibration to benefit quantitative
astronomy, a cooled science path to reduce thermal background, and a high-efficiency science instrument providing
imaging and integral field spectroscopy.
KEYWORDS: Mirrors, Imaging systems, Adaptive optics, Iterated function systems, Sensors, Spectrographs, Signal to noise ratio, Point spread functions, Telescopes, Relays
In this paper we report on the preliminary design of DAVINCI, the first light science instrument for the W. M. Keck
Observatory's Next Generation Adaptive Optics facility. DAVINCI will provide imaging and coronagraphy at the
diffraction limit from 0.7 μm to 2.4 μm over a field of ~30", and integral field spectroscopy with three sampling scales
(10, 35, and 50 mas) and a field of view of 5.6" x 3" for the largest (50 mas) sampling scale. The science requirements
for DAVINCI are discussed, followed by an examination of the challenges of designing the instrument within a strict
limit on overall cost. The instrument's optical design and opto-mechanical configuration is described as well as the
current performance predictions for the instrument.
For over a decade, the W. M. Keck Observatory's two 10-meter telescopes have been operated remotely from its Waimea
headquarters. Over the last 6 years, WMKO remote observing has expanded to allow teams at dedicated sites in California
to observe either in collaboration with colleagues in Waimea or entirely from the U.S. mainland. Once an experimental
effort, the Observatory's mainland observing capability is now fully operational, supported on all science instruments
(except the interferometer) and regularly used by astronomers at eight mainland sites.
Establishing a convenient and secure observing capability from those sites required careful planning to ensure that
they are properly equipped and configured. It also entailed a significant investment in hardware and software, including
both custom scripts to simplify launching the instrument interface at remote sites and automated routers employing ISDN
backup lines to ensure continuation of observing during Internet outages.
Observers often wait until shortly before their runs to request use of the mainland facilities. Scheduling these requests
and ensuring proper system operation prior to observing requires close coordination between personnel at WMKO and the
mainland sites. An established protocol for approving requests and carrying out pre-run checkout has proven useful in
ensuring success.
The Observatory anticipates enhancing and expanding its remote observing system. Future plans include deploying
dedicated summit computers for running VNC server software, implementing a web-based tracking system for mainland-based
observing requests, expanding the system to additional mainland sites, and converting to full-time VNC operation for
all instruments.
Natural Guide Star (NGS) and Laser Guide Star (LGS) Adaptive Optics (AO) have been offered for routine science
operations to the W. M. Keck Observatory community since 2000 and late 2004, respectively. The AO operations team
is now supporting ~100 nights of AO observing with four different instruments, including over fifty nights of LGS AO
per semester. In this paper we describe improvements to AO operations to handle the large number of nights and to
accommodate the recent upgrade to the wavefront sensor and wavefront controller. We report on the observing
efficiency, image quality, scientific productivity, impact analysis from satellite safety procedures and discuss the support
load required to operate AO at Keck. We conclude the paper by presenting our plans for dual LGS AO operations with
Keck I - Keck II LGS, starting in 2009.
The W. M. Keck Observatory has completed the development and initial deployment of MAGIQ, the Multi-function
Acquisition, Guiding and Image Quality monitoring system. MAGIQ is an integrated system for acquisition, guiding and
image quality measurement for the Keck telescopes. This system replaces the acquisition and guiding hardware and
software for existing instruments at the Observatory and is now the standard for visible wavelength band acquisition
cameras for future instrumentation. In this paper we report on the final design and implementation of this new system,
which includes three major components: a visible wavelength band acquisition camera, image quality measurement
capability, and software for acquisition, guiding and image quality monitoring. The overall performance is described, as
well as the details of our approach to integrating low order wavefront sensing capability in order to provide closed loop
control of telescope focus.
Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics (LGS AO) has been offered to Keck II visiting astronomers since November 2004. From the few nights of shared-risk science offered at that time, the LGS AO operation effort has grown to supporting over fifty nights of LGS AO per semester. In this paper we describe the new technology required to support LGS AO, give an overview of the operational model, report observing efficiency and discuss the support load required to operate LGS AO. We conclude the paper by sharing lessons learned and the challenges yet to be faced.
We present an overview of the OSIRIS integral field spectrograph which was recently commissioned on the Keck II Telescope. OSIRIS works with the Keck Adaptive Optics system and utilizes an infrared transmissive lenslet array to sample a rectangular field of view at close to the Keck diffraction limit. By packing the spectra close together (2 pixel rows per spectrum) and using the Rockwell Hawaii-2 detector (wavelengths between 1 and 2.5 microns), we achieve a relatively large field of view (up to 6."4) while maintaining full broad-band spectral coverage at a resolution of 3800. Among the challenges of the instrument are: a fully cryogenic design (approximately 250 kg are brought down to 55K); four spatial scales from 0."02 to 0."10; extremely low wavefront error (approximately 25 nm of non-common path error); large all aluminum optics for the spectrograph; extremely repeatable spectral formats; and a sophisticated data reduction pipeline. OSIRIS also serves as a starting point for our design of IRIS which is a planned integral field spectrograph for the Thirty Meter Telescope.
The Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics (LGS AO) at the W.M. Keck Observatory is the first system of its kind being used to conduct routine science on a ten-meter telescope. In 2005, more than fifty nights of LGSAO science and engineering were carried out using the NIRC2 and OSIRIS science instruments. In this paper, we report on the typical performance and operations of its LGS AO-specific sub-systems (laser, tip-tilt sensor, low-bandwidth wavefront sensor) as well as the overall scientific performance and observing efficiency. We conclude the paper by describing our main performance limitations and present possible developments to overcome them.
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