A laser diode illuminator for single-photon avalanche diode detection-based pulsed time-of-flight 3D range imaging is presented. The illuminator supports a block-based illumination scheme and consists of a 16-element custom-designed common anode quantum-well laser diode bar working in the enhanced gain switching regime and lasing at ∼810 nm. The laser diode elements are separately addressable and driven with gallium nitride drivers, which produce current pulses with a width of ∼2 ns; the current pulse amplitude was estimated from the supply voltage (90 V) as 5 to 10 A. Cylindrical optics are used to produce a total illumination field-of-view of 40 × 10 deg2 (full width at half maximum) in 16 separately addressable blocks. With a laser pulsing frequency of 256 kHz and laser pulse energy of ∼8.5 nJ, the average optical illumination power of the transmitter is 2.2 mW.
We present an accurate laser radar receiver with a wide dynamic range intended for ranging applications based on an event-based approach, in which a receiver-time-to-digital converter is used to extract the timing information from the reflected echo. The receiver is based on LC resonance pulse shaping at the input so that the unipolar pulse detected by the avalanche photodiode is converted to a bipolar signal, and the first zero-crossing of this converted signal is marked as the only timing point. One important aspect of the proposed scheme is that it does not need any postcompensation or gain control for achieving a wide dynamic range. The receiver chip was fabricated in a 0.35-μm standard CMOS technology, and a laser radar platform was developed to verify the functionality of the proposed receiver channel. The measured accuracy of the receiver is ±3.5 cm within a dynamic range of more than 1:250,000 using 3-ns FWHM pulses when target materials with different reflectivities are used in the measurements. The single-shot precision of the receiver (σ value) is ∼5 cm for a minimum SNR of ∼10.
A pulsed TOF laser radar utilizing the single-photon detection mode has been implemented, and its performance is characterized. The transmitter employs a QW double-heterostructure laser diode producing 0.6 nJ/100 ps laser pulses at a central wavelength of ∼810 nm. The detector is a single-chip IC manufactured in the standard 0.35-μm HV CMOS process, including a 9×9 single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array and a 10-channel time-to-digital converter (TDC) circuit. Both the SPAD array and the TDC circuit support a time gating feature allowing photon detection to occur only within a predefined time window. The SPAD array also supports a 3×3 SPADs subarray selection feature to respond to the laser spot wandering effect due to the paraxial optics and to reduce background radiation-induced detections. The characterization results demonstrate a distance measurement accuracy of +/−0.5 mm to a target at 34 m having 11% reflectivity. The signal detection rate is 28% at a laser pulsing rate of 100 kHz. The single-shot precision of the laser radar is ∼20 mm (FWHM). The deteriorating impact of high-level background radiation conditions on the SNR is demonstrated, as also is a scheme to improve this by means of detector time gating.
We validate a miniaturized pulsed laser source for use in time-domain (TD) diffuse optics, following rigorous and shared protocols for performance assessment of this class of devices. This compact source (12×6 mm2) has been previously developed for range finding applications and is able to provide short, high energy (∼100 ps, ∼0.5 nJ) optical pulses at up to 1 MHz repetition rate. Here, we start with a basic level laser characterization with an analysis of suitability of this laser for the diffuse optics application. Then, we present a TD optical system using this source and its performances in both recovering optical properties of tissue-mimicking homogeneous phantoms and in detecting localized absorption perturbations. Finally, as a proof of concept of in vivo application, we demonstrate that the system is able to detect hemodynamic changes occurring in the arm of healthy volunteers during a venous occlusion. Squeezing the laser source in a small footprint removes a key technological bottleneck that has hampered so far the realization of a miniaturized TD diffuse optics system, able to compete with already assessed continuous-wave devices in terms of size and cost, but with wider performance potentialities, as demonstrated by research over the last two decades.
Optical transient responses to a variety of pump-current pulses, modified in length and amplitude, are experimentally investigated under room temperature conditions for a Fabry-Perot semiconductor bulk laser with an 80 nm thick active layer (AL) comprised in a strongly asymmetric broadened waveguide structure. At best, gain-switched trailing oscillations free single optical pulses with ~2.48 nJ pulse energy, Eopt, and ~130 ps full width at half maximum (FWHM), equivalent to ~13 W peak power were achieved. The corresponding pump-current pulse was of ~6.9 A amplitude and ~1.26 ns FWHM generated with a compact driver circuit of ~1 cm2 in size utilizing a commercial silicon avalanche transistor as an electrical switch. We found that the laser pulse temporal position correlates with a critical charge, Qcrit, arising from the current pulse, which scales with the laser diode oxide stripe width (90 μm) and cavity length (1.5 mm).
This paper presents an architecture and achievable performance for a time-to-digital converter, for 3D time-of-flight cameras. This design is partitioned in two levels. In the first level, an analog time expansion, where the time interval to be measured is stretched by a factor k, is achieved by charging a capacitor with current I, followed by discharging the capacitor with a current I/k. In the second level, the final time to digital conversion is performed by a global gated ring oscillator based time-to-digital converter. The performance can be increased by exploiting its properties of intrinsic scrambling of quantization noise and mismatch error, and first order noise shaping. The stretched time interval is measured by counting full clock cycles and storing the states of nine phases of the gated ring oscillator. The frequency of the gated ring oscillator is approximately 131 MHz, and an appropriate stretch factor k, can give a resolution of ≈ 57 ps. The combined low nonlinearity of the time stretcher and the gated ring oscillator-based time-to-digital converter can achieve a distance resolution of a few centimeters with low power consumption and small area occupation. The carefully optimized circuit configuration achieved by using an edge aligner, the time amplification property and the gated ring oscillator-based time-to-digital converter may lead to a compact, low power single photon configuration for 3D time-of-flight cameras, aimed for a measurement range of 10 meters.
A compact, low-cost semiconductor laser diode producing 40 ps full width at half maximum (FWHM) single-spike lasing pulses with 6 Watts peak power from a 20 μm stripe width is realized in the form of a simple single-heterostructure, grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition. The structure possesses a linearly graded doping profile extending from the p+ and n+ sides towards the p-n junction. This laser diode is operated under room temperature conditions and applies pumping current pulses (roughly 10 to 20 A/2 to 3 ns FWHM) achievable with a commercially available silicon avalanche transistor as an electrical switch.
Fundamental mode, ~100 ps, ~40 W optical pulses are demonstrated from a laser diode with a strongly asymmetric
waveguide structure and a relatively thick (~0.1 μm) active layer driven with ~15 A, ~1.5 ns injection current pulses
produced by a simple avalanche transistor circuit. Using this compact laser source, pulsed time-of-flight laser
rangefinding measurements were performed utilizing a single-photon avalanche detector. The results show the feasibility
of a very compact overall device with centimeter-level distance measurement precision and walk-error compensated
accuracy to passive targets at tens to hundreds of meters in a measurement time of about ten milliseconds.
Arterial stiffness is one of the indices of vascular healthiness. It is based on pulse wave analysis. In the case we
decompose the pulse waveform for the estimation and determination of arterial elasticity. Firstly, optically measured
with photoplethysmograph and then investigating means by four lognormal pulse waveforms for which we can find very
good fit between the original and summed decomposed pulse wave. Several studies have demonstrated that these kinds
of measures predict cardiovascular events. While dynamic factors, e.g., arterial stiffness, depend on fixed structural
features of the vascular wall. Arterial stiffness is estimated based on pulse wave decomposition analysis in the radial and
tibial arteries. Elucidation of the precise relationship between endothelial function and vascular stiffness awaits still
further study.
KEYWORDS: Semiconductor lasers, Picosecond phenomena, Q switches, Doping, Diodes, Q switched lasers, Near field optics, High power lasers, Near field, Waveguides
The recently demonstrated high-power (50W from a 20μm stripe) picosecond (30ps) lasing from a laser diode has led us
to address the internal Q-switching phenomenon, discovered four decades ago and not yet fully understood. We found
that the realization of a nanosecond or picosecond mode in a diode depends on the doping profile across the structure.
Pulsed time-of-flight laser ranging is based on measuring the transit time of a short laser pulse to an optically visible
target and back to the receiver. These techniques are gaining in popularity for industrial distance measurement
applications. The laser pulse length typically used is in the range of 3 ns, which corresponds to about 1 m in air. This
pulse length poses a challenge for detection of the echo from the target since the accuracy aimed at in a single shot is
typically at the level of a few centimetres or even better with a dynamic range of more than 1:10 000. This paper studies
the possibility of realizing the timing detection of the laser pulses with a straight-forward leading edge type of receiver
that detects the cross-over of the received pulse with respect to a set reference level. Without any other measures the
timing walk error that would be produced with this kind of receiver, would be at the level of nanoseconds. However, by
measuring either the width or the slew rate of the rising edge of the received pulse, timing walk can be compensated for
based on the measured dependence of the walk on the respective parameter. The advantage of these methods is that they
are effective even when the optoelectronic receiver is saturated, thus enabling one to achieve wide dynamic operating
range. Using these time-domain walk compensation methods we have constructed fully integrated CMOS and BiCMOS
laser radar receivers that achieve timing walk error of less than +/-30ps in dynamic range of 1:10 000 -100 000.
In time-of-flight laser distance measurement a nanosecond-class laser pulse is reflected off a target, and the distance to
the target is calculated from the flight time of the pulse. The distance measurement precision is directly proportional to
the jitter of the pulse (i.e. the uncertainty of the arrival time of the pulse due to noise). In this work, the effect of signal
quantum shot noise on the jitter of detected laser pulses was researched. It was discovered that signal quantum shot noise
drives the optimal detection level of the pulse lower because shot noise increases along with received pulse power. The
effect is more significant with an AP-diode receiver than with a PIN diode receiver due to the avalanche multiplication
of shot noise in an AP-diode. This jitter phenomenon was modeled in Matlab, and the result was verified by
measurements.
Current-pumped picosecond-range laser diodes with a peak power significantly exceeding that achievable from gainswitched
lasers are of major interest for a large variety of commercial applications. A group of phenomena have been
explored in which the peak transient gain is efficiently controlled by a fast reduction in the pumping current. Common to
all these phenomena is the fact that the peak powers of the emitted picosecond optical pulses (15-100 ps) exceed that
obtainable from gain-switched laser diodes by at least an order of magnitude, although the physical reasons for the high
gain and the design principles of the semiconductor structures are different. The main problem in the realization of these
picosecond modes in low-cost practical systems is the high sensitivity of the operation regime to structural and circuit
parameters. A related problem is the questionable reproducibility of the fabrication processes used so far. Proper
development of reliable high-power picosecond transmitters will require the use of more advanced fabrication methods
and further study of the effect of structural parameters on the properties of the picosecond lasing mode. In this paper we
report on a record value for the power density of the picosecond lasing (50W / 30ps) obtained from a laser diode chip of
width 20 &mgr;m and give a qualitative interpretation of the operating mode. Use of the MOCVD process for diode
fabrication should allow reproducible technology for picosecond laser diodes to be developed.
A number of up-to-date applications, including advanced optical radars with high single-shot resolution, precise 3 D imaging, laser tomography, time imaging spectroscopy, etc., require low-cost, compact, reliable sources enabling the generation of high-power (1-100 W) single optical pulses in the picosecond range. The well-known technique of using the gain-switching operation mode of laser diodes to generate single picosecond pulses in the mW range fails to generate high-power single picosecond pulses because of a lack of high-current switches operating in the picosecond range. We
report here on the achieving of optical pulses of 45W / 70ps, or alternatively 5W / 40ps, with gain-switched commercial quantum well (QW) laser diodes having emitting areas of 250 × 200 μm and 75 × 2 μm, respectively. This was made possible by the use of a novel high-current avalanche switch based on a GaAs bipolar junction transistor (BJT) structure with a switching time (<200ps) comparable to the lasing delay. (The extremely fast transient in this switch is caused by the generation and spread of a comb of powerfully avalanching Gunn domains of ultra-high amplitude in the transistor structure.) A simulation code developed earlier but modified and carefully verified here allowed detailed comparison of the experimental and simulated laser responses and the transient spectrum.
Ultrafast (picosecond range) switching of a GaAs-based BJT (bipolar junction transistor) in the avalanche mode has recently been demonstrated experimentally. It was found to be caused by the formation and spread of ultra-high amplitude multiple Gunn domains, which cause extremely powerful avalanching in the volume of the switching filaments. Unavoidable parasitic impedance of an external circuit limits the rate of avalanche carrier generation in the channels, however, which slows down the switching and increases the residual voltage across the switch. We present here the results of simulations which show that the switching transient can be significantly accelerated and the residual voltage reduced due to the supporting of a higher current density in the channels by the charge stored in the barrier capacitance of the non-switched part of the structure. The corresponding circuital currents are confined in low-inductance loops inside the structure and are not critically affected by the parameters of the external circuit. This provides very fast and effective reduction in the collector voltage, provided the parameters of the semiconductor layers and the geometry of the device are selected properly. Particularly significant in this process is the effect of circuital current saturation in the lightly doped collector region of the non-switched part of the transistor. The results of the simulations with the barrier capacitance included in the model are in excellent agreement with the experimental data.
Picosecond-range single optical pulses with peak power in the range 10-100 W are fairly attractive for various practical applications. A laser diode structure has lately been suggested which produces powerful (~ 50 W) picosecond (~20 ps) optical pulses near the trailing edge of the current pulse by means of field-assisted gain control. Lasing onset is delayed in this diode by a few nanoseconds due to intendance-reduced pumping efficiency caused by the implementation of internal optical pumping. The ps operating mode is based on a compromise between the dynamics of carrier accumulation and of the transverse electric field, controlled by the efficiency of the internal optical pumping. The pumping efficiency is determined to a large extent by competition between stimulated and spontaneous radiative recombination at the source of optical pumping. An effect of the laser diode switching from the picosecond to the quasi-steady-state (ns) mode was observed when the length of the laser cavity was reduced from 400 μm to 200 μm. This phenomenon is studied and attributed to an increase in the fraction of spontaneous photons due to reduction in the density of the stimulated emission at the source of the optical pumping.
Superfast high current switching of a GaAs-based JBT in the avalanche mode has been achieved experimentally for the first time. A very fast reduction in the voltage across the transistor was observed (~ 200-300 ps) and the amplitude of the current pulses ranged from 2 to 130 A depending on the load resistance. It was observed experimentally that the switching occurs in a number of synchronized current channels with a characteristic diameter of <~10 microns. A 1D simulation code was developed and the switching transient for a single channel was simulated, with the external circuit incorporated into the simulations. Photon-assisted carrier transport and negative differential electron mobility were taken into account in the theoretical model. The former does not play an appreciable role in the 1D switching transient, although the latter determines superfast switching at extreme current densities (> 1 MA/cm2). Superfast switching occurs due to the appearance of a number of Gunn domains at any instant (up to ~ 20 domains across a collector region ~30 microns in thickness). These domains of huge amplitude (up to ~700 kV/cm) are moving towards the cathode and give rise to extremely high ionization rates across the volume of the channel in the n0 collector region. The simulations provide a fairly reliable interpretation of the experimentally observed switching time, which is shorter than that in Si avalanche transistors by a factor of ~15. The new device is fairly attractive, e.g. for feeding pulsed laser diodes when the current rise time should be shorter than the lasing delay.
A measurement system for electro-optical characterization of photodetectors and photodetector arrays is presented. The system is intended for laboratory use where typically a few devices are characterized at a time. The instrument is designed for determining the photoresponse (dc and pulse) of a single photodetector or a photodetector array as a function of wavelength, position, and temperature. In case of photodetector arrays, the measurement of modulation transfer function (MTF) and fast determination of its photoresponse nonuniformity (PRNU) is also possible. The instrument setup and experimental results are presented.
This paper describes a fibre-optic interrogation device based on a pulsed time-of-flight (TOF) technique for the measurement of integral strain. The precision of the measurement system is 100 μm (1 ps) and it has a spatial resolution of less than 0.50 m (5 ns), achieved by the use of ultra-short probe pulses of about 500 ps, a GHz band receiver channel and a custom-made time-to-digital converter (TDC) implemented in a standard CMOS process. The TDC can simultaneously measure the distance to 9 reflectors (e.g., Bragg gratings) in the fibre core using the same optical pulse. Combined with a common receiver channel and an ultra-fast timing discriminator, this capability makes the system fast and stable, thus enabling both long-term and dynamic measurements. Potential application areas of the system include measurement of integral strain and its derivatives, especially in large civil engineering structures and composite materials. Pull tests with bare optical fibres have demonstrated that the obtained results are in good agreement with those of a reference sensor.
High-precision laser radars and 3D vision systems with millimetre resolution require high-power picosecond optical pulses from laser diodes with direct current pumping in order to satisfy the requirements of low price, compactness and high reliability. A new laser diode capable of generating ~50 W / 20 ps optical pulses for such applications has been proposed recently, but one very important technical limitation for many industrial applications lies in its repetition rate, which is at present limited to ~ 50 kHz. This limitation originates from the heat dissipation in the Si-based, high-current nanosecond avalanche transistors used for laser pumping. It is shown in the paper, by using the 2D semiconductor device simulator, that the heat generation is powerfully localized in the avalanche transistor structure during the switching-on stage, but that in spite of this the associated thermal dynamics permits a higher maximum repetition rate than that observed experimentally. Moreover, smart designing of the semiconductor layers and construction of the heat sink should allow the limitation to exceed 1MHz. The lower limit observed so far in the experiments is caused by the stage of the voltage recovery across the transistor and may be softened by advanced circuit design.
A laser diode structure has lately been reported that is capable of generating high-power picosecond optical pulses (~ 50 W / 20 ps) in the near-infrared range for laser radars and other applications. The physical idea consists of achieving fast gain control through the effect of a transverse electric field on the carrier distribution across the active region, which controls the local gain and local absorption at each instant. The mechanism of field-assisted gain control, which has so far been formulated only as a qualitative idea, is justified in this work by simulations of the carrier transport and laser response using the semiconductor device simulator "Atlas" (Silvaco Inc.). A simplified approach is adopted which replaces photon-assisted carrier transport with carrier penetration over the lowered potential barrier. This points to reasonably good agreement between the experimental and simulation results for picosecond pulse generation, provided that the carrier mobilities are assumed to be higher than those in the heavily doped semiconductor structure by a factor of ~ 4. One important conclusion is that comprehensive modelling of the operation of the experimental laser diode is not possible without considering photon-assisted carrier transport, which has not been studied so far at very high carrier densities (exceeding the transparency concentration).
A double heterostructure (DH) laser has been developed and tested with the aim of achieving high-power picosecond optical pulses in the near-infrared range for use in advanced laser radars and other applications. The physical idea consists of achieving fast gain control by means of temporal evolution of the electric field in the active region. The gain is controlled by the variation in current due to transformation in the built-in electric field across the active region, provided that a high current density is used for pumping. This transformation broadens the carrier energy distribution in the active region, thus suppressing lasing until the current pulse stops. The resulting carrier accumulation causes an enlargement in the power of the short-pulsing Q-switching mode. One of the most important features of the laser structure is the placement of the electron injector well outside the two hetero-barriers forming the active region. Three transient lasing modes were observed simultaneously in this laser diode, with a maximum difference in wavelength as large as 60 nm. One of them, a 45 W/ 25 ps Q-switching mode which appears near the trailing edge of the current pulse, being spectrally separated from the other two. A significant further increase in the power of the Q-switching mode can be expected from an optimized laser structure with two parasitic modes completely suppressed. The new laser structure produces much more powerful picosecond pulses than are obtainable from gain-switched lasers and allows lasing wavelength control by means of bandgap engineering.
The pulsed time-of-flight laser range finding techniques based on laser diode transmitter enables one to realize a mm-level accuracy to non-cooperative targets in a distance measurement range of several tens of meters in industrial applications such as the measurement of level heights in silos, positioning of tools and vehicles, velocity measurement, anti-collision radars, proximity sensors, etc. In this work the basic pulsed time-of-flight laser radar functions, the receiver channel and the time interval measurement unit, have been realized in the form of high-performance full-custom integrated circuits, which should pave the way for realizing a laser radar eventually as a component-like micro system thus increasing the number of possible applications for the developed techniques. The integrated BiCMOS receiver channel produces a logic level output pulse for the time interval measurement from the received laser echo. Two versions were realized, one detecting the leading edge of the received pulse and achieving an accuracy of +/- 35 mm in a dynamic range of 1:4000. In the other version gain control and constant fraction type of timing detection techniques are used to enhance the accuracy. With this circuit an input dynamic range of 1:650 (SNR > 10) can be achieved with a timing accuracy of about +/- 3 mm. The developed fully integrated CMOS time-to-digital converter realization is based on a counter and a novel parallel two- step interpolation method. The single-shot precision and measurement range of the unit are 50 ps and 2 microseconds, respectively. In averaging mode the linearity is better than +/- 5 ps. Even better single-shot precision can be realized with analog interpolation techniques, however, at the expense of reduced stability.
Great differences were found between the spectral and power responses for two modes of a single-heterostructure laser operation, with the dynamic behavior of each mode fitted to the traditional definition of the internal Q-switching phenomenon. The first mode is interpreted in terms of the most popular diffraction losses theory, while the other one is related to the practically important method of high-power picosecond optical pulse generation and interpreted in terms of a recent carrier heating and cooling model. This finding could obviate confusion in the interpretation of mechanisms of high-power picosecond pulse generation in the Q-switching mode.
A compact laser diode based transmitter was designed and tested for laser radar and various laboratory applications. Single optical pulses with a peak power of up to 200 W, 23 - 65 ps pulse duration and a repetition rate of up to 50 kHz were measured. Transient mode spectral filtering suppressed afterpulsing modes by a factor of 104 - 105 with respect to the peak power. A control module was developed which provided a jitter value between electrical triggering and the optical pulses as low as 14 ps. Averaging of 103 events allows 1.5 ps stability between the triggering and the optical pulses to be achieved within a delay range from 5 to 250 ns.
23 ps/200 W clear single optical pulses were achieved from a Q-switched commercial single heterostructure laser with a standard peak power of 5 W by means of spectral filtering of the transient mode together with optimal pumping conditions. These conditions were found by analysis of the transient spectrum dynamics. A high-power picosecond range optical pulse appears near the trailing range of the pumping current pulse under certain conditions. Its intensity is found to be determined mainly by the transient spectrum width, which in turn depends on the lattice temperature. An increase in the temperature causes both an optical pulse delay with respect to the trailing edge of the current pulse and significant spectrum narrowing. This behavior is ascribed to the effect of saturable absorption and carrier recombination in the heavily doped and compensated active region of the laser diode. A recently suggested model used to interpret the experimental data explains Q-switching behavior by considering tail-state absorption together with carrier heating and cooling in the active region. The difference between the Q-switching mode observed here and the traditional one caused by diffraction losses in the cavity is discussed.
In this paper the high frequency behavior of integrated pn- photodiodes is discussed and measurement results of two different types of photodiodes, one implemented in a standard 1.2 micrometers BiCMOS process and the other in a 0.8 micrometers CMOS process are presented. The rise times and responsivities of the photodiodes are under 5 ns and 0.26 A/W in the CMOS process and about 30 ns and 0.23 A/W in the BiCMOS process, respectively. Furthermore, the suitability of the technique for 3D vision has been investigated by designing an array of photodetectors and measuring the isolation between detector blocks.
Implementations and test results of one single-axis and 2- axis CMOS PSDs as well as a BiCMOS integrated receiver channel are presented. The single-axis PSD has a conventional LEP structure. It uses the well-substrate junction as a photodetector and pinched well as current dividing layer. An interelectrode resistance, NEP and position sensing accuracy of 152 k(Omega) , 1.6 pW/(root)Hz (850 nm) and 0.1%rms are achieved with the detector measuring 5 X 0.2 mm2. The first 2-axis PSD is a tetralateral LEP but instead of having strip-like continuous edge-electrodes it has electrodes composed of 100 discrete contacts, each of which is connected to the output current line using MOS switches. Linear position response is provided by disconnecting one opposite pair of the electrodes from preamplifier inputs and measuring one dimension at a time. An interelectrode resistance, NEP and accuracy of 4.5 k(Omega) , 10 pW/(root)Hz and 0.07%rms were achieved with this PSD using the alternate measurement mode. The second 2-axis PSD has an operating principle similar to a basic LEP but is composed of an array of phototransistors and polysilicon resistors. The NEP and position sensing nonlinearity of the sensor were 0.5 pW/(root)Hz and 0.04%rms, respectively. The third 2-axis PSD has the same construction as the second one but the phototransistors and polysilicon resistors were replaced with well-substrate photodiodes and pmos transistors, respectively. By driving one or more adjacent transistors in off-state the LEP mode can be changed to a segmented PSD mode providing the means to combine the high lateral sensitivity of the segmented mode with the large and linear measurement fields of the LEP. The BiCMOS receiver channel is composed of a transimpedance preamplifier, voltage amplifiers, gain control and offset cancellation blocks and a synchronous detector. The transimpedance at four different gains for a signal frequency ranging typically from 5 kHz to 10 kHz were 7 M(Omega) , 33 M(Omega) , 143 M(Omega) and 488 M(Omega) . The measured noise current density was lower than 0.3 pA(root)Hz, and the area and power consumption were 2.9 X 0.45 mm2 and 37 mW, respectively. As the achieved results fulfill the demands set for a typical signal conditioning channel of a PSD sensor system, the properties appear to be suitable for integrated PSD systems.
KEYWORDS: Binary data, Photodetectors, Sensors, Quantization, Signal processing, Photodiodes, Signal to noise ratio, Reflectors, Signal detection, Interference (communication)
The implementation and test results of a 16 by 16 binary CMOS photodetector array for position sensing applications are presented. Unlike conventional position sensitive detectors (PSDs), it can be used for simultaneous multiple spot detection with high accuracy. To decrease the signal processing overhead characteristic of this kind of area arrays, binary detection and random access readout is used. The fill factor and pitch of the array are 30% and 50 micrometers , respectively. Spatial quantization limited position sensing accuracy of 4.3 micrometers is achieved using a uniform spot of 280 micrometers in diameter, total signal power of about 8 nW and pulse width of 8 ms. At lower signal levels, the accuracy is decreased by the spatial noise caused by the nonuniformity of the threshold currents. The array outperforms a typical large-area (approximately 100 mm2) lateral effect PSD (LEP) when a measurement bandwidth smaller than 10 kHz is used.
The displacement sensing accuracy of the reflected beam method in turbulent environment is studied experimentally. The method includes an illuminated corner cube retroreflector (CCR) and a lateral effect photodiode (LEP) by which the image position of the CCR is detected. The results show turbulence (Cn approximately 5*10-7 m-1/3) limited measurement resolution to vary from 0.6 to 9 mm (standard deviation) in the distance range from 50 to 300 m. The result is 1.4 to 2.1 times worse than that measured for the direct beam sensor in the same atmospheric conditions. The type of CCR used is found to have no systematic effect on the achievable resolution but the method is found very sensitive to receiver defocusing. An approximately tenfold increase in standard deviation is observed when the receiver is defocused by 2%. The possibility to average out part of the angular fluctuations by using multiple CCRs is verified. By using two CCRs instead of one, when positioned 1.3 m apart from each other at the distance of 150 m, a resolution better by 22% is achieved. The averaging in case of the LEP, however, is not effective because the noncorrelated intensity fluctuations of the reflections from the different CCRs cancel the averaging effect.
A prototype of a liquid level gauge based on pulsed time-of- flight method was developed for measuring liquid level accurately at distances from zero to 30 meters. The system consists of an optomechanical sensor head and electronics unit which are connected to each other by means of two optical fibers. The developed level gauge utilizes mirror- like reflection of the liquid surface and by proper design of the optics the received signal is constant in the whole measurement range. The losses in the optical path of the level gauge are relatively small, thus allowing the use of a 1 mW CW semiconductor diode laser as a light source. The pulsing frequency of the laser is 1.5 MHz and the time interval between start and stop pulses is digitized by means of a simple and inherently linear synchronous digital counter. The correct orientation of the measurement head is achieved by using sensitive bearings and by allowing gravity to keep the correct orientation. An attenuation system based on eddy currents effectively attenuates the oscillation of the sensor head. Measurements carried out in laboratory show that the accuracy of some millimeters can be achieved with the measurement time of some seconds.
Laser pulsing techniques utilizing gain switching and Q- switching operation modes of commercially available SH and DH laser diodes have been studied to realize powerful and fast laser pulses for industrial applications of pulsed time-of-flight laser range finding techniques. Pulses with the length of 100 ps to some nanoseconds and peak power level of 50 to 200 W have been aimed at. As an example, with a high speed current driver realized with a combination of an avalanche transistor matrix and a DSRD, an isolated pulse with a peak power level of 200 W and a pulse length of 100 ps was achieved from a DH laser diode operating under the gain switching region. Internal Q-switching mechanisms of SH laser diodes enable the lasers to achieve a pulse power of 100 W and a pulse width in the range of 100-200 ps.
A new time-of-flight-based imaging lidar was designed to carry out measurements in the 5 to 100-m range. The concept of the device, along with an illustration of the design of a time-to-digital converter for parallel time interval measurements and a presentation of our sensor breadboard is described. Test results showing sensor performance are also presented and discussed. This lidar can be used for shape and profile measurements in space and industrial applications.
In this paper two types of high-bandwidth receiver channels for a time-of-flight laser radar are presented. The purpose was to increase the bandwidth of the receivers compared to the previously used BW approximately 100 MHz receiver channels to improve the single-shot resolution of the laser radar. Both of the new receivers consist of a transimpedance preamplifier followed by two voltage amplifier stages, all commercial components. One of them is equipped with a prototype GaAs-MSM diode and the other utilizes a commercially available avalanche photodiode or a PIN diode as the photodetector. The performances of both amplifier channels were measured. The upper limit of the noise bandwidth fmax of receiver channel 1 was about 820 MHz and its calculated transimpedance was 150 k(Omega) . The measured noise current reduced to input was 7.4 pA/(root)Hz. Receiver channel 2 had a total fmax of 800 MHz and noise current of 7.5 pA/(root)Hz. Its calculated transimpedance was 130 k(Omega) . The performance of receiver channel 2 was measured using it as a receiver channel in a single channel laser radar. In the pulser an avalanche transistor and a SH laser operating in gain switching mode were used. The width of the optical pulse was 2.3 ns and rise time was 900 ps measured with receiver channel 2. The timing principle utilized both leading and trailing edges of the pulse. The single-shot measurement resolution was 28.5 ps with receiver channel 2 while the signal-to-noise-ratios of the start and stop pulses in the channel were 80 and 56.
Implementation and test results of a 3-D sensor based on time-of-flight (TOF) laser radar are presented. A sensor capable of measuring 3-D positions and orientations in a large working space is used for interactive teaching of robot paths and environments. It consists of a pointing device, a laser rangefinder, and a video tracker. The 3-D position and orientation of the pointer are obtained by measuring the distance from two separate points on the pointer arm to a tracking receiver and by using the tracking-camera image for detecting the angle of the pointer on the plane that is perpendicular to the optical axis of the tracking system. The rangefinder uses a new active target operating principle, including fiber-coupled transmitters attached to the pointer arm. The distance
and angle measurement accuracies were measured to be better than ± 5 mm and ± 5 deg in the ranges of 2.3 to 4.7 &mum and ± 40 deg, respectively, using ordinary technology. The operating range is likely to be increased and the accuracy enhanced by using the latest state-of-the-art TOF rangefinding technique.
A laser altimeter based on the time of flight principle has been developed to be put on board a gondola of a balloon drifting in the atmosphere of Mars. The light source is a PGT:Nd solid state laser ((lambda) equals 1.067 micrometers ) which emits pulses about 10 ns wide at a repetition rate of 0.2 Hz, the energy of each pulse being about 7.5 mJ. Special attention was paid in the development work to minimizing the size, weight and power consumption of the altimeter. Thus its weight is 450 g and the average power consumptions of the electronics and laser have been reduced to about 30 mW and 0.6 - 0.8 W, respectively, by switching on the power supply to the measurement and interface part only during the 50 ms measurement period. The time interval between the transmitted and received signal is measured digitally by counting clock pulses obtained from a 100 MHz oscillator. The measurement range and single shot resolution are about 6 km and +/- 1.5 m, respectively. The laser altimeter contains two peak detectors to measure the amplitudes of the transmitted and received pulses for recording of the albedo on the surface of Mars. Test results show that the altimeter is capable of operating in a temperature range of -80 degree(s)C - +60 degree(s)C and at an air pressure of few torr. The minimum average reflection coefficient of the Martian surface is about 0.1 which enables the measurement range of 13 km if the minimum signal to noise ratio of the measurement is about 10.
Time-of-flight laser radar devices utilizing a single heterostructure semiconductor laser diode as a light source have a measurement spot diameter from a few millimeters to several centimeters depending on the optics and the required optical output power. Inhomogeneities in the reflectivity and surface profile of a target inside the area illuminated by the laser beam can be a source of error in distance measurement. If inhomogeneities, the intensity profile of the transmitter beam on the target surface and the shape of the received optical pulse in the time domain from a flat homogeneous surface are known, the shape of the received pulse from an non-homogeneous target surface can be calculated. As the measurement spot sweeps over the surface of the target its shape in the time domain varies, causing distance error. If the timing discrimination method used in a laser radar device is known, the distance error can be estimated by means of a numerical analysis. A simple method of estimating the error caused by the finite measurement spot size together with inhomogeneities of the target surface is presented here. A number of real measurement results obtained with a prototype of a commercial laser radar device are presented, together with simulation results. Both sets of results show that a spot size of several centimeters together with large variations in the reflectivity of the target surface can really cause an error of some centimeters in distance measurement.
Practical, compact time-of-flight (TOF) laser distance meters have been constructed for many industrial applications using a semiconductor laser as the light source. The optical pulse power of such devices has varied in the range of 1 to 30 W, rise times between 1 and 3 ns and pulse widths between 5 and 10 ns. The lasers have usually been DH lasers at low pulse powers (< 5 W) and SH lasers with 1 to 3 stripes at higher powers (5 - 30 W). A capacitor discharged by an avalanche transistor has been widely accepted as the pulser circuit for producing fast electric current pulses for lasers. Improvement of the timing resolution of the measurement result requires an increase in the slew-rate of the received light pulse or a decrease in the noise level. Use of a commercial non-pigtailed 1-stripe SH laser and a commercial power transistor in the avalanche operation mode yielded an optical pulse, the rise time of which was clearly less than 1 ns (rise time of the electric pulse was 3.5 ns). It was noticed in the tests that the rise time of the light pulse varied according to the measurement angle of the received light and the temperature of the laser. In order to obtain fast laser pulses it is necessary to control the temperature and the space angle in which the radiation is collected. There are also big differences in the shape of the optical pulse between different items of the same laser type and for this reason selection of the laser items is needed.
Active fibers, i.e. optically pumped doped fibers, have been developed and studied intensively during the last few years, and an optical amplifier based mainly on erbium-doped fibers has just been launched on the expanding telecommunications market. Fiber lasers have a market of their own in the sensor applications. The use of fiber lasers as pulse sources in laser rangefinder applications is studied here. The main advantages with respect to high energy pulses and a small emitting area are listed, the problems and disadvantages are discussed and some practical solutions to these problems are given. Possible Q-switching techniques for obtaining short, powerful pulses (> 10 W) of about 10 ns are studied as are liquid-crystal, PLZT crystal, acousto-optic and Pockels Cell modulators. Finally, the practicability of these modulators for laser pulsing in industrial environments is discussed.
Long term research on pulsed time-of-flight laser distance measurement has opened new dimensions in measurement applications, from large scale assembly in shipbuilding to precast concrete element production, leading to improved quality control and more efficient manufacturing. The ACMAN 3-D coordinate meters measure the coordinate values of a point in terms of radial distance and two angles directly from natural surfaces. The accuracy of coordinate values is 1 mm (1-sigma) in the measurement range of 3 - 30 m. The functions of the automatic ACMAN 200 include pointing with a red beam, automatic searching and measuring of marked target points and shape measurement by scanning. Coaxial optics of measuring, pointing and aiming provide the optimal measurement geometry. ACMAN 3-D coordinate meters are integrated into the ACMAN 1000 and ACMAN 2000 series dimension control systems.
The refractive index of an optical glass sample in the form of a wedge is measured by comparison with that of a reference liquid. This holographic technique can also be applied to the measurement of the refractive index of the immersion liquid, if the refractive index of the glass wedge is known. The accuracy of the method with respect to index matching, glass wedge preparation, and fringe position measurement on the interferogram is discussed.
KEYWORDS: Distance measurement, LIDAR, Receivers, Time metrology, Semiconductor lasers, Signal to noise ratio, Electronics, Pulsed laser operation, 3D metrology, Diodes
A beam-scanning binary logic (BSBL) and its implementation using a beam-scanning laser diode (BSLD) are proposed. The BSBL is categorized as spatial coding information processing, which operates with spatially coded light signals. A basic BSBL unit consists of two photodetectors, two amplifiers, a light source, and a beam scanner. A unit with three output photodetectors can execute eight types of binary two-inputs/one-output optical logic operations with small modifications: FALSE, AND, XOR, OR, NOR, XNOR, NAND, and TRUE.
Typical construction and performance data for a pulsed time-of-flight laser rangefinding device intended for industrial measurements is presented. It is shown that by using a laser diode transmitter with a peak power of 5 - 15 W, a measurement range of a few tens of meters can be attained with respect to a noncooperative target. The available single shot resolution reaches mm-level in a fraction of a second. Accuracy depends greatly on the construction and adjustment of the device and levels of better than +/- 3 mm can be achieved in the above measurement range. Various construction details and other factors affecting to the available resolution and accuracy are discussed.
Time-of-flight laser rangefinders based on the propagation speed of light and direct detection may be roughly divided into two classes depending on whether their light emission is continuous or pulsed. In the modulated continuous wave (CW) rangefinding technique an amplitude modulated light carrier is emitted and the distance information is extracted from the received signal by comparing its modulation phase to that of the emitted signal. In the pulsed time-of-flight (TOF) rangefinding method the distance is obtained by measuring the time interval between the transmitted and received light
pulses. A comparison is made in this paper between the TOF and CW techniques in terms of the range measurement resolution achievable. The basis for comparison is that the actual measurement or averaging time is the same with both techniques. Comparison is made in the case where the average optical power level used is the same and also in that in which an unambiguous measurement distance is set for both techniques. With an equal average optical power level and a noise contribution dominated by the signal itself, it is shown that the ratio of achievable range resolution between the TOF and CW techniques is directly proportional to the ratio of the modulation frequency of the CW method to the receiver bandwidth of the TOF method. When the average optical power level is reduced and the photon-noise limited condition is not achieved, the TOF mode rangefinder gains an advantage over the CW mode because the resolution is directly proportional to the optical power level and the available energy in the TOF technique can be concentrated at the moment of timing. This enables a TOF rangefinder to be much faster than a similar CW rangefinder in many practical applications.
The problems associated with the fibres used in pulsed time-of-flight rangefinders were studied, and particularly errors due to
the transit time disturbances of step and graded index fibres as a function of fibre length, input numerical aperture and
temperature. The cladding modes and leaky modes ofa fibre can affect the transit time oflight pulses under suitable conditions,
so that fibres become sensitive to environmental effects. The effect of temperature is smaller and more linear for acryl-coated
fibres than for nylon-coated ones. The main reason for the non-linear effect of temperature on a nylon fibre is the non-linear
Young's modulus of nylon as a function of temperature. The increasing transit time of hard clad silica (HCS) fibres at lower
temperatures (below +20°C), contrary to glass fibres, can be explained by the different thermal coefficient of the core and
cladding, leading to increased non-homogenities on the core-cladding interface.
KEYWORDS: Receivers, Signal to noise ratio, Distance measurement, Electronics, Transmitters, Temperature metrology, Inspection, Head, Time metrology, Interference (communication)
This paper discusses the construction and capabilities of a time-of-flight laser rangefmder system for profiling measurements
on hot surf,es (< 1400C), especially measurement of the thickness profile of the lining of a converter in iron works.
Thebkgmtmdradiation is the main source ofthe noise in the receiverin this kind ofmeasurement. The inherentlylow signalto-
noise ratio, typically 10 - 40,can be improved by the construction, adjustment ofthe parallel optics and optimization of the
gain of the receiver avalanche photodiode. A stability of +1- 5 mm and a resolution of a few mm can be achieved in real
measurement sitoations with a measurement time ofless than 1 second per poinL The non-linearity of the device at the near
end ofthe measurementrange due to the paralleloptics and optical fibres is reduced to 5 mm by modifying the optics and using
a mode mixer. The poor temperature stability, typically about -2 mm/'C, ofa device with different receiver channels for start
and stop pulses can be improved by stabilizing the temperature ofthe electronics, orbeuer still, by using one electrical channel,
in which case the temperature drift is almost zero in the temperature range -10C -+35C.
The construction and capabilities of a pulsed time-of-flight laser radar device constructed for the measurement of liquid levels is presented. The system consists of a measurement head, an electronic unit and a fibre optic connection between the two. The measurement head includes the laser transmitter, which is a collimator pen laser diode with a peak output power and repetition rate of 10 mW and 1 MHz, respectively, and single axis optics. The novel construction of the optics together with the highly non-divergent beam of the laser diode (< 0.3 mrad) and the mirror-like reflection of the liquid level enable measurement situation to be achieved in which the amplitude of the received pulse remains constant as a function of the measurement range. This simplifies the construction of the system and increases its accuracy, as the errors entailed in automatic gain control electronics can be avoided. On the other hand, the construction increases the accuracy needed in the set-up of the system, as the received beam has to fall on the receiver lens. Time interval measurement is based on the counting of the pulses of an accurate free-running 100 MHz oscillator within start/stop time intervals. By averaging 106 measurement results a resolution of about 1 mm is achieved. The averaging circuit is constructed in such a way that missing stop pulses, e.g. due to momentary fluctuations in liquid level, do no interrupt the measurement. The resolution and accuracy of the system were measured to be 1 mm (a-value) and 2 mm, respectively. If the liquid level fluctuates, the accuracy deteriorates due to dispersion effects in the receiver fibre, which may have a length of up to a hundred of metres. This error can be reduced, however, by use of a mode scrambler at the input to the receiver fibre.
Three pulsed time-of--flight laser rangefinders have been developed for studying
the measurement of the 3-D shape of large objects. A manually scanned system is
suggested for manufacturing accuracy measurement and control for ship block assembly.
This system can be used to measure distance, plane regularity, angles,
spatial forms etc . , within a range from 3 m to 30 m with mm-level accuracy . The two
others are automatically scanning based on galvanometer driven mirrors, and a
servo-controlled mechanical scanner. These systems are intended for applications
where it is important to be able to gather 3-D data automatically and with high
speed. The resolutions are also on the mm-level, but the measurement speed is
10 000 points/s at maximum.
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