We present a novel approach to 4D (XYZ + time) body scanning, developed for supporting medical rehabilitation monitoring. The system reflects the actual requirements for 4D measurements, providing a feature of capturing up to 120 Hz sequences of point clouds, with a spatial resolution of 1.0 mm and inaccuracy of 0.5 mm. The presented system consists of four directional modules arranged evenly around the measurement volume to provide complete scans. A structured light method is utilized, therefore each directional module consists of detectors and projectors. In order to enhance body surface coverage from every direction each measurement module uses two detectors and a single projector. This configuration is a result of optimizing the best scanning results considering proper amount of data and a reasonable number of hardware elements (that translates into system price). For the chosen number of directional modules a problem of synchronization (projected patterns overlapping is highly erroneous) was solved. We decided to apply spectral separation in a form of colored projection and color filters. This solution allows each detector to register only the pattern associated with it. A single frame pattern for structured light method was used to achieve presented measurement frequency. A set of algorithms was developed in order to perform all processing steps, including phase unwrapping, based only on a single image per detector. The final phase distribution is scaled into XYZ coordinates, therefore an extended common calibration process was introduced to receive a single multidirectional cloud as the output. The system is able to reconstruct dynamic objects in the form of point clouds, where each point, aside from XYZ coordinates, also contains an information about it’s normal vector. The future work will include improving the system accuracy and error-resistance.
KEYWORDS: Surgery, 3D modeling, Magnetic resonance imaging, Data modeling, Haptic technology, Visualization, Bone, Visual process modeling, Navigation systems, Human-machine interfaces
SPE3D is a surgery planning environment developed within TLEMsafe project [1] (funded by the European Commission FP7). It enables the operator to plan a surgical procedure on the customized musculoskeletal (MS) model of the patient's lower limbs, send the modified model to the biomechanical analysis module, and export the scenario's parameters to the surgical navigation system. The personalized patient-specific three-dimensional (3-D) MS model is registered with 3-D MRI dataset of lower limbs and the two modalities may be visualized simultaneously. Apart from main planes, any arbitrary MRI cross-section can be rendered on the 3-D MS model in real time. The interface provides tools for: bone cutting, manipulating and removal, repositioning muscle insertion points, modifying muscle force, removing muscles and placing implants stored in the implant library. SPE3D supports stereoscopic viewing as well as natural inspection/manipulation with use of haptic devices. Alternatively, it may be controlled with use of a standard computer keyboard, mouse and 2D display or a touch screen (e.g. in an operating room). The interface may be utilized in two main fields. Experienced surgeons may use it to simulate their operative plans and prepare input data for a surgical navigation system while student or novice surgeons can use it for training.
We report on a structured light-scanning system, the OGX|4DSCANNER, capable of capturing the surface of a human body with 2 mm spatial resolution at a 60 Hz frame-rate. The performance of modeling the human lower body dynamics is evaluated by comparing the system with the current gold standard, i.e., the VICON system. The VICON system relies on the application of reflective markers on a person’s body and tracking their positions in three-dimensional space using multiple cameras [optical motion capture (OMC)]. For the purpose of validation of the 4DSCANNER, a set of “virtual” markers was extracted from the measured surface. A set of musculoskeletal models was built for three subjects based on the trajectories of real and virtual markers. Next, the corresponding models were compared in terms of joint angles, joint moments, and activity of a number of major lower body muscles. Analyses showed a good overall agreement of the modeling outcome. We conclude that the 4DSCANNER within its limitations has the potential to be used in clinical gait analysis instead of optical marker-based systems. The advantage of the 4DSCANNER over OMC solutions is that it does not burden patients with time-consuming marker application. This study demonstrates the versatility of this measurement technique.
Faulty postures, scoliosis and sagittal plane deformities should be detected as early as possible to apply preventive and treatment measures against major clinical consequences. To support documentation of the severity of deformity and diminish x-ray exposures, several solutions utilizing analysis of back surface topography data were introduced. A novel approach to automatic recognition and localization of anatomical landmarks of the human back is presented that may provide more repeatable results and speed up the whole procedure. The algorithm was designed as a two-step process involving a statistical model built upon expert knowledge and analysis of three-dimensional back surface shape data. Voronoi diagram is used to connect mean geometric relations, which provide a first approximation of the positions, with surface curvature distribution, which further guides the recognition process and gives final locations of landmarks. Positions obtained using the developed algorithms are validated with respect to accuracy of manual landmark indication by experts. Preliminary validation proved that the landmarks were localized correctly, with accuracy depending mostly on the characteristics of a given structure. It was concluded that recognition should mainly take into account the shape of the back surface, putting as little emphasis on the statistical approximation as possible.
KEYWORDS: Surgery, Human-machine interfaces, 3D modeling, 3D displays, Navigation systems, Bone, Data modeling, Virtual reality, Haptic technology, Biological research
We present a human-computer interface that enables the operator to plan a surgical procedure on the musculoskeletal
(MS) model of the patient's lower limbs, send the modified model to the bio-mechanical analysis module, and export the
scenario parameters to the surgical navigation system. The interface provides the operator with tools for: importing
customized MS model of the patient, cutting bones and manipulating/removal of bony fragments, repositioning muscle
insertion points, muscle removal and placing implants. After planning the operator exports the modified MS model for
bio-mechanical analysis of the functional outcome. If the simulation result is satisfactory the exported scenario data may
be directly used during the actual surgery.
The advantages of the developed interface are the possibility of installing it in various hardware configurations and
coherent operation regardless of the devices used. The hardware configurations proposed to be used with the interface
are: (a) a standard computer keyboard and mouse, and a 2-D display, (b) a touch screen as a single device for both input
and output, or (c) a 3-D display and a haptic device for natural manipulation of 3-D objects.
The interface may be utilized in two main fields. Experienced surgeons may use it to simulate their intervention plans
and prepare input data for a surgical navigation system while student or novice surgeons can use it for simulating results
of their hypothetical procedure.
The interface has been developed in the TLEMsafe project (www.tlemsafe.eu) funded by the European Commission FP7
program.
Currently, a lot of different scanning techniques are used for 3D imaging of human body. Most of existing systems are
based on static registration of internal structures using MRI or CT techniques as well as 3D scanning of outer surface of
human body by laser triangulation or structured light methods. On the other hand there is an existing mature 4D method
based on tracking in time the position of retro-reflective markers attached to human body. There are two main drawbacks
of this solution: markers are attached to skin (no real skeleton movement is registered) and it gives (x, y, z, t) coordinates
only in those points (not for the whole surface). In this paper we present a novel multidirectional structured light
measurement system that is capable of measuring 3D shape of human body surface with frequency reaching 60Hz. The
developed system consists of two spectrally separated and hardware-synchronized 4D measurement heads. The principle
of the measurement is based on single frame analysis. Projected frame is composed from sine-modulated intensity
pattern and a special stripe allowing absolute phase measurement. Several different geometrical set-ups will be proposed
depending on type of movements that are to be registered.
The paper presents an optical three-dimensional shape measurement system and an automatic method for assessment of
pectus excavatum severity based on the measurement results. The measurement system consists of four directional
modules utilizing structured light projection method (namely temporal phase shifting TPS and modified Gray code
projection) to capture the shape of body surface of the patients. The measurement result is a three-dimensional point
cloud representing the skin surface. The system setup is described and the typical measurement parameters are given.
The automated data analysis path is explained. Its main stages are: point cloud segmentation, normalization of trunk
orientation, cutting the model into slices, analysis of each slice shape, selecting the proper slice for the assessment of
pectus excavatum of the patient and calculating its shape parameter. The analysis does not require any initial processing
(e.g. surface fitting or mesh building) as it is conducted on raw 3-D point cloud data resulting from the measurement. A
new shape parameter (I3ds) was developed that shows correlation with CT Haller Index widely used for assessment of
pectus excavatum. Preliminary clinical results are presented.
We present an automatic method for assessment of pectus excavatum severity based on an optical 3-D markerless shape measurement. A four-directional measurement system based on a structured light projection method is built to capture the shape of the body surface of the patients. The system setup is described and typical measurement parameters are given. The automated data analysis path is explained. Their main steps are: normalization of trunk model orientation, cutting the model into slices, analysis of each slice shape, selecting the proper slice for the assessment of pectus excavatum of the patient, and calculating its shape parameter. We develop a new shape parameter (I3ds) that shows high correlation with the computed tomography (CT) Haller index widely used for assessment of pectus excavatum. Clinical results and the evaluation of developed indexes are presented.
KEYWORDS: Clouds, Data processing, Algorithm development, 3D metrology, Skin, Data analysis, Shape analysis, Optical testing, Data acquisition, Surgery
Four-dimensional (4D) (3D+time) measurement systems make it possible today to measure objects while moving and deforming. One of the fields where 4D systems prove themselves useful is medicine—particularly orthopedics and neural sciences—where measurement results may be used to estimate dynamic parameters of a patient's movement. Relatively new in 4D, optical full-field shape measurement systems capture more data than standard marker-based systems and open new ways for clinical diagnosis. However, before this is possible, the appropriate 4D data processing and analysis methods need to be developed. We present a new data analysis path for 4D data input as well as new shape parameters describing local features of a surface. The developed shape parameters are easier and quicker to calculate than standard surface parameters, such as curvatures, but they give results that are very similar to the latter. The presented 4D data analysis path allows characteristic areas on the body, so-called anatomical landmarks, to be located and traces them in time along the measurement sequence. We also present the general concepts and describe selected steps of the developed 4D data analysis path. The algorithms were implemented and tested on real and computer-generated data representing the surface of lower limbs. Finally, we give sample processing and analysis results.
The recent development of electro-optical instrumentation allowed constructing 4D (3D + time) structure-light scanners
which may be used to measure the surface of human body in motion. The main advantage of structure-light scanners is
the possibility of capturing data from the whole measured body surface, while traditional marker-based systems acquire
data only form markers attached to skin of the examined patient. The paper describes new parameters describing the local shape of measured surface. The distribution maps of these
parameters allow discrimination of various surface types and in effect localization and tracing of under-skin anatomical
structures in time. The presented parameters give similar results to well-known curvatures but are easier and quicker to
calculate. Moreover the calculation process of the new parameters is more numerically stable itself. The developed path of processing and analysis of 4D measurement data has been presented. It contains the following
stages: data acquisition, volumetric model creation, calculations of shape parameters, selecting areas of interest, locating
and tracing of anatomical landmarks. Exemplary results of application of developed parameters and methods to real measurement and computer generated
data are also presented.
In this paper a concept of a Internet Virtual Studio as a modern system for production of news, entertainment,
educational and training material is proposed. This system is based on virtual studio technology and integrated with
multimedia data base. Its was developed for web television content production. In successive subentries the general
system architecture, as well as the architecture of modules one by one is discussed. The authors describe each module by
presentation of a brief information about work principles and technical limitations. The presentation of modules is
strictly connected with a presentation of their capabilities. Results produced by each of them are shown in the form of
exemplary images. Finally, exemplary short production is presented and discussed.
KEYWORDS: Clouds, Calibration, 3D metrology, Visualization, Image processing, Raster graphics, Motion analysis, 3D image processing, Data acquisition, Algorithm development
Orthopedics and neurosciences are fields of medicine where the analysis of objective movement parameters is extremely important for clinical diagnosis. Moreover, as there are significant differences between static and dynamic parameters, there is a strong need of analyzing the anatomical structures under functional conditions. In clinical gait analysis the benefits of kinematical methods are undoubted.
In this paper we present a 4D (3D + time) measurement system capable of automatic location of selected anatomical structures by locating and tracing the structures' position and orientation in time. The presented system is designed to help a general practitioner in diagnosing selected lower limbs' dysfunctions (e.g. knee injuries) and also determine if a patient should be directed for further examination (e.g. x-ray or MRI).
The measurement system components are hardware and software. For the hardware part we adapt the laser triangulation method. In this way we can evaluate functional and dynamic movements in a contact-free, non-invasive way, without the use of potentially harmful radiation. Furthermore, opposite to marker-based video-tracking systems, no preparation time is required.
The software part consists of a data acquisition module, an image processing and point clouds (point cloud, set of points described by coordinates (x, y, z)) calculation module, a preliminary processing module, a feature-searching module and an external biomechanical module.
The paper briefly presents the modules mentioned above with the focus on the feature-searching module. Also we present some measurement and analysis results. These include: parameters maps, landmarks trajectories in time sequence and animation of a simplified model of lower limbs.
New optical full-field shape measurement systems allow transient shape capture at rates between 15 and 30 Hz. These frequency rates are enough to monitor controlled movements used e.g. for medical examination purposes. In this paper we present a set of algorithms which may be applied for processing of data gathered by fringe projection method implemented for lower limbs shape measurement. The purpose of presented algorithms is to locate anatomical structures based on the limb shape and its deformation in time. The algorithms are based on local surface curvature calculation and analysis of curvature maps changes during the measurement sequence. One of anatomical structure of high medical interest that is possible to scan and analyze, is patella. Tracking of patella position and orientation under dynamic conditions may lead to detect pathological patella movements and help in knee joint disease diagnosis. Therefore the usefulness of the algorithms developed was proven at examples of patella localization and monitoring.
It is expected that the next generation of full 3D optical scanning systems will be able to measure volumetric objects in motion. Standard data representations like point clouds or sets of triangle meshes, which are used nowadays for static 3D objects, will no longer be an efficient solution in this field. Systems of this kind will have to use other data processing and representation methods. We propose our own solution in this paper, using an arbitrary full 3D mesh which is scaled and wrapped around a merged point cloud obtained from the measurements, instead of a standard point cloud representation. This solution was specifically prepared for a prototype of a full-field 4D scanning system. This system is based on a dynamic laser triangulation. Four scanners capture a surface of a moving object from four different directions simultaneously. They are calibrated in time and space so finally we can obtain a full 3D object surface which changes in time. In this paper we present some details of the scanning system, 4D surface representation, general 4D
data processing pipeline, developed algorithms and we finally show some exemplary results of our work in this field.
New image processing methods and active photonics apparatus have made possible the development of relatively inexpensive optical systems for complex shape and object measurements. We present dynamic 360° scanning method for analysis of human lower body biomechanics, with an emphasis on the analysis of the knee joint. The anatomical structure (of high medical interest) that is possible to scan and analyze, is patella. Tracking of patella position and orientation under dynamic conditions may lead to detect pathological patella movements and help in knee joint disease diagnosis. The processed data is obtained from a dynamic laser triangulation surface measurement system, able to capture slow to normal movements with a scan frequency between 15 and 30 Hz. These frequency rates are enough to capture controlled movements used e.g. for medical examination purposes. The purpose of the work presented is to develop surface analysis methods that may be used as support of diagnosis of motoric abilities of lower limbs. The paper presents algorithms used to process acquired lower limbs surface data in order to find the position and orientation of patella. The algorithms implemented include input data preparation, curvature description methods, knee region discrimination and patella assumed position/orientation calculation. Additionally, a method of 4D (3D + time) medical data visualization is proposed. Also some exemplary results are presented.
KEYWORDS: 3D metrology, Fringe analysis, 3D modeling, Charge-coupled devices, Systems modeling, Shape analysis, Digital Light Processing, Solid modeling, Sensors, Cameras
The basic methodologies used in animation are presented and their most significant problems connected with combining real and virtual worlds are recognised. Measured objects are classified into groups based on their mechanical properties and behaviour. The optical methods of shape and movement parameters determination adequate for fast virtual object generation are presented. Combination of various fringe projection techniques with photogrammetry is proposed to calculate the temporal shape and position of the object points. The spatio-temporal analysis of a projected fringe pattern delivers information about object shape and its out-of-plane deformation. The shape of measured object is calculated based on algorithm spatial carrier phase shifting technique. The analysis of marker dislocations during the measurement provides information about object shifts within the measurement volume. Combined information about object shape and its dislocation during the measurement enable to generate a virtual model that can be used to generate e.g.: realistic animation. The short comparison between proposed method and currently available systems is given and exemplary results of measurements are presented. The further directions of development of proposed techniques are presented.
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