The concept of sensor networks that can detect intrusions by hostile personnel and provide live, real time video of the intrusions to a central location has been circulated for over three decades. While there have been permanent installations of continuous surveillance monitors along small sections of the US border and such systems are routinely installed around high value facilities, these systems are not practical over large regions. The ideal sensor network would be covert, have self-contained power, be resistant to false alarms, be low cost, enable wireless data transfer, rapidly deployed and easily maintained, and require minimal personnel to operate/monitor. Unfortunately, the technical capability to produce such a sensor network has heretofore not existed. The advent of Ultra-Wideband (UWB) radiofrequency technology, digital cameras and night/day imaging technology developed during the telecom boom has changed this. By combining General Atomics' UWB communications and radar technology with commercially available micro-CCD or CMOS cameras, night illuminators, and lithium-ion batteries, an unattended sensor network capable of monitoring large (10 - 2000 km) class perimeters has been developed.
Markus Roth, Thomas Cowan, Curtis Brown, W. Fountain, Steven Hatchett, J. Johnson, Michael Key, Deanna Pennington, Michael Perry, Thomas Phillips, Thomas Sangster, Mike Singh, Richard Snavely, Mark Stoyer, Scott Wilks, K. Yasuike
The LLNL Petawatt Laser has achieved focused intensities up to 6 by 1020 W/cm2. IN plasmas created by this laser, the quiver energy of target electrons exceed several MeV. Recent experiments revealed an intense, collimated beam of high-energy is converted into protons which leads to an energy content of 30J in a pulse of less than 10 ps. The beam shows a broad particle energy spectrum with a sharp cut off and an almost mono-energetic part above 55 MeV. With their short pulse duration, high particle energy and large luminosity these beams are promising candidates in numerous applications, such as short-pulse injectors for laser accelerators or as the ignitor for fast ignition ICF. Using intense proton beams the fast ignitor concept may also become more attractive in heavy-ion fusion due to the possibility to work with indirectly driven targets. Finally, the acceleration is not restricted to protons and the use of tailored target surfaces may allow to accelerate more massive ions to similar energy per nucleon.
Femtosecond laser ablation has been shown to produce well-defined cuts and holes in metals with minimal heat effect to the remaining material. Ultrashort laser pulse processing shows promise as an important technique for materials processing. We will discuss the physical effects associated with processing based experimental and modeling results. Intense ultra-short laser pulse (USLP) generates high pressures and temperatures in a subsurface layer during the pulse, which can strongly modify the absorption. We carried out simulations of USLP absorption versus material and pulse parameters. The ablation rate as function of the laser parameters has been estimated. Since every laser pulse removes only a small amount of material, a practical laser processing system must have high repetition rate. We will demonstrate that planar ablation is unstable and the initially smooth crater bottom develops a corrugated pattern after many tens of shots. The corrugation growth rate, angle of incidence and the polarization of laser electric field dependence will be discussed. In the nonlinear stage, the formation of coherent structures with scales much larger than the laser wavelength was observed. Also, there appears to be a threshold fluence above which a narrow, nearly perfectly circular channel forms after a few hundred shots. Subsequent shots deepen this channel without significantly increasing its diameter. The role of light absorption in the hole walls will be discussed.
The use of femtosecond lasers allows materials processing of practically any material with extremely high precision and minimal collateral damage. Advantages over conventional laser machining (using pulses longer than a few tens of picoseconds) are realized by depositing the laser energy into the electrons of the material on a time scale short compared to the transfer time of this energy to the bulk of the material, resulting in increased ablation efficiency and negligible shock or thermal stress. The improvement in the morphology by using femtosecond pulses rather than nanosecond pulses has been studied in numerous materials from biological materials to dielectrics to metals. During the drilling process, we have observed the onset of small channels which drill faster than the surrounding material.
M. Roth, R. Bock, U. Funk, Matthias Geissel, D. Hoffmann, Thomas Kuehl, Grant Logan, Jurgen Meyer-ter-Vehn, Peter Nickles, Michael Perry, Wolfgang Seelig, Christian Stoeckl, S. Stoewe, W. Suess
For the development of a heavy ion driven inertial confinement fusion scenario a detailed knowledge of the interaction processes of the ions with the converter material is crucial. As this converter will be predominantly in the plasma state one of the main topics of the plasma physics group at Gesellschaft fuer Schwerionenforschung (GSI) is the interaction of heavy ions with dense hot plasma. Based on the latest result on interaction experiments with laser generated plasma targets presented here and concerning the high current upgrade of GSI a new high energy laser system is proposed. It will serve as a driver for interaction experiments with heavy ions as well as a diagnostic tool for heavy ion generated plasmas. In addition, with the combination of high current heavy ion beams and intense lasers innovative, fundamental research in the field of high energy density physics will be accessible for the first time.
We have developed a Ti:sapphire/Nd:glass laser system which produces > 1.25 PW peak power. An irradiance of 1020 - 1021 W/cm2 is achieved utilizing an on-axis parabolic mirror, with adaptive optic wavefront correction. Experimental results will be described.
Most of the glass laser based inertial confinement fusion systems around the world
today employ non-linear frequency conversion for converting the 1.053 pm light at the
fundamental frequency (referred to as 1o light) to either its second harmonic (called 2o) at
527 nm or to its third harmonic (called 3w) at 351 nm. Shorter wavelengths are preferred
for laser fusion because of the improved coupling of the laser light to the fusion targets
due to reduced fast electron production at shorter wavelengths. The frequency conversion
process, however, is only about 60-70% efficient and the residual 30-40% of the energy
remains at la) and 2w frequencies.
We describe the prototype preamplifier for the NIF laser system and discuss the performance of the regenerative amplifier and 4-pass laser systems that comprise the preamplifier.
Deanna Pennington, Michael Perry, Brent Stuart, Robert Boyd, Jerald Britten, Curtis Brown, Steve Herman, John Miller, Hoang Nguyen, Bruce Shore, Gregory Tietbohl, Victor Yanovsky
We recently demonstrated the production of over a petawatt of peak power in the Nova/Petawatt Laser Facility, generating > 600 J in approximately 440 fs. The Petawatt Laser Project was initiated to develop the capability to test the fast ignitor concept for inertial confinement fusion, and to provide a unique capability in high energy density physics. The laser was designed to produce near kJ pulses with a pulse duration adjustable between 0.5 and 20 ps. At the shortest pulse lengths, this laser is expected to surpass 1021 W/cm2 when focused later this year. Currently, this system is limited to 600 J pulses in a 46.3- cm beam. Expansion of the beam to 58 cm, with the installation of 94-cm gratings, will enable 1 kJ operation. Target experiments with petawatt pulses will be possible either integrated with Nova in the 10 beam target chamber or as a stand alone system in an independent, dedicated chamber. Focusing the beam onto a target will be accomplished using an on axis parabolic mirror. The design of a novel targeting system enabling the production of ultrahigh contrast pulses and an easily variable effective focal length is also described.
It is now widely recognized that spatial beam smoothing (homogenization) is
essential in coupling the laser energy to the inertial confinement fusion (ICF) targets'. For
the indirect drive approach' to ICF, it is desirable to distribute the laser energy into a
uniformly speckled profile that has a flat-top super-Gaussian envelope (8th power or
higher) and contains greater than 95% of the energy inside the super-Gaussian profile.
Spatial smoothing is easily achieved by introducing a binary random phase plate (RPP) in
the beam. This produces a homogenized far-field pattern which consists of an overall
envelope function determined by the RPP element superimposed with a fine scale speckle
pattern arising due to the interference among the various RPP elements. Although easy to
fabricate and currently in routine use in many fusion laboratories2, the binary RPPs do not
meet the ICF requirements stated above since the far-field intensity profile is restricted to
essentially an Airy function containing only 84% (an upper limit) of the energy inside the
central spot. Approaches using lenslet arrays (refractive or diffractive)3'4 have limited use
since they operate in the quasi-far-field and have a short depth of focus.
Advances in high peak power short-pulse laser systems are currently limited by laser-induced damage to optical components by the intense short pulses. We have investigated the damage thresholds and mechanisms of pure dielectrics, and gold and multilayer-dielectric mirrors and diffraction gratings, with pulses ranging from 1 ns down to 0.1 ps. Theoretical modeling of the damage process is in quantitative agreement with measurements for both metals and dielectrics. In the dielectrics, we find a change in pulse width scaling of the threshold fluence near 20 ps, below which the excited electrons generated by multiphoton and avalanche ionization have insufficient time to couple their energy to the lattice during the pulse. For the shortest pulses the damage process becomes dominated by multiphoton ionization, leading to a very strong dependence on the electric field strength (extremely localized ablation) and a relative insensitivity to sample defects.
Ultrashort pulse, high-intensity lasers offer new opportunities for the study of light-matter interaction and for inertial confinement fusion. A 100 Terawatt laser operating at 400 fs and 1.053 micrometers is operational at LLNL, and a 1000 Terawatt (Petawatt) laser will come online in early 1996. These lasers use large-aperture (40 cm and 94 cm diameter, respectively) diffraction gratings to compress the amplified laser pulse. At present, holographically produced, gold overcoated photoresist gratings are used: these gratings represent the fuse in the laser chain. Higher laser damage thresholds and higher diffraction efficiencies are theoretically possible with multilayer dielectric gratings (MDG's). A number of design parameters regarding both the multilayer stack and the etched grating structure can be optimized to maximize the laser damage threshold and also improve the processing latitude for the interference lithography and reactive ion etching steps used during manufacture of these gratings. This paper presents model predictions for the behavior of hafnia/silica MDG's both during processing and in operation, and presents experimental data on the diffraction efficiency and short-pulse laser damage threshold for optimized witness gratings.
Lasers are currently limited in their ability to remove hard tissue. Furthermore, many laser systems, such as the long pulse infrared lasers used to ablate bone or hard dental tissue, also generate unacceptable heat levels and cause collateral tissue damage. Ultrashort pulse lasers, however, are highly efficient, quiet and relatively free of damage. With recent development now allowing operation at high pulse repetition rates, ultrashort pulse systems can yield significant material volume removal which can potentially match or even exceed conventional technology while still maintaining the minimal collateral damage characteristics. In this paper, we report on preliminary studies of 350 fs pulse interactions with hard tissue and compare our results to the nanosecond ablation regime.
Tissue ablation with ultrashort laser pulses offers several unique advantages. The nonlinear energy deposition is insensitive to tissue type allowing this tool to be used for soft and hard tissue ablation. The localized energy deposition leads to precise ablation depth and minimal collateral damage. In this paper we will report on our efforts to study and demonstrate tissue ablation using an ultrashort pulse laser. The ablation efficiency, and extent of collateral damage for 0.3 ps and 1000 ps duration laser pulses will be compared. Temperature measurements of the rear surface of a tooth section will also be presented.
In spite of intensive research, lasers have not replaced conventional tools in many hard tissue applications. Low removal rates, loud operation noise, and mechanical and thermal damage are among the main obstacles to successful application of lasers. Ultrashort pulse lasers offer several advantages in their high per-pulse-efficiency, negligible thermal and mechanical damage and low noise operation. Practical applications of these devices, however, depends critically on sufficiently high volume removal which should match or even exceed the high speed drill. In our study, acoustical output of the USPL is compared to the low and high speed dental drill, Er:YAG, and Ho:YSGG lasers. Noise levels of the USPL are shown to be negligible in comparison with all other tested system. In addition, thermal characteristics of hard dental tissue ablation by ultrashort pulse laser of low and high pulse repetition rates are presented. Encouraging results showing temperatures increases smaller than 10 degree(s)C even at the highest pulse repetition rates (1 KHz) are presented. A simple model for heat diffusion is discussed.
Lasers are currently limited in their ability to remove hard tissue. Furthermore, many laser systems, such as the long pulse infrared lasers used to ablate bone or hard dental tissue, also generate unacceptable heat levels and cause collateral tissue damage. Ultrashort pulse lasers, however, are highly efficient, quiet, and relatively free of charge. With recent developments now allowing operation at high pulse repetition rates, ultrashort pulse systems can yield significant material volume removal which can potentially match or even exceed conventional technology while still maintaining the minimal collateral damage characteristics. In this paper, the interaction characteristics of two pulse regimes with enamel and dentin: 350 fs pulse ablation of hard dental tissues is compared to the interaction with one nanosecond pulses. Ablation rates were characterized and surface morphology, and structure were evaluated using a scanning electron microscope.
An overview of the physics of dental tissue processing with ultra-short pulse lasers is presented. Due to the small ablation rate per pulse, multiple pulses are necessary for macroscopic material removal. The paper discusses the cumulative effect of multiple pulse processing. Experimental data and calculation of thermal loading are presented, and the optimal laser system repetition rate is estimated. Modeling of the crater produced by multiple pulses is presented and possibilities to control the crater shape are discussed.
In spite of intensive research, lasers have not replaced conventional tools in many hard tissue applications. Ultrashort pulse lasers offer several advantages in their highly per-pulse-efficient operation, negligible thermal and mechanical damage and low noise operation. Possible development of optimal laser systems to replace the high-speed dental drill is discussed. Applications of ultrashort pulse systems for dental procedures are outlined. Selection criteria and critical parameters are considered, and are compared to the conventional air-turbine drill and to long and short pulsed systems.
Successful operation of large-scale high-power lasers, such as those in use and planned at LLNL and elsewhere, require optical elements that can withstand extremely high fluences without suffering damage. Of particular concern are gratings used for pulse compression. Laser induced damage to bulk dielectric material originates with coupling of the electric field of the radiation to bound electrons, proceeding through a succession of mechanisms that couple the electron kinetic energy to lattice energy and ultimately to macroscopic structural changes (e.g. fracture, melting, ablation, etc.). The constructive interference that is responsible for the diffractive behavior of a grating or the reflective properties of a multilayer dielectric stack can enhance the electric field above values that would occur in unstructured homogeneous material. The presence of nonuniform electric fields, resulting from diffractive coherence, has the potential to affect damage thresholds. We describe aspects of LLNL work directed towards understanding the influence of dielectric structures upon damage, with particular emphasis on electric fields within multilayer dielectric stacks.
We present fully continuous phase screens for producing super-Gaussian focal-plane irradiance profiles. Such phase screens are constructed with the assumption of either circular symmetric near-field and far-field profiles or a separable phase screen in Cartesian co-ordinates. In each case, the phase screen is only a few waves deep. Under illumination by coherent light, such phase screens produce high order super-Gaussian profiles in the focal plane with high energy content. Effects of beam aberrations on the focal plane profiles and their energy content are also discussed.
Chirped pulse amplification is increasingly used to produce intense ultrashort laser pulses. When high efficiency gratings are the dispersive element, as in the LLNL Petawatt laser, their susceptibility to laser induced damage constitutes a limitation on the peak intensities that can be reached. To obtain robust gratings, it is necessary to understand the causes of short-pulse damage, and to recognize the range of design options for high efficiency gratings. Metal gratings owe their high efficiency to their high conductivity. To avoid the inevitable light absorption that accompanies conductivity, we have developed designs for high efficiency reflection gratings that use only transparent dielectric materials. These combine the reflectivity of a multilayer dielectric stack with a diffraction grating. We report here our present understanding of short-pulse laser induced damage, as it applies to dielectric gratings.
The baseline design of the National Ignition Facility (NIF) calls for sampling gratings to provide third-harmonic energy diagnostics in the highly constrained area of the target chamber. These 40 multiplied by 40 cm transmission gratings are to diffract at (order plus 1) nominally 0.3% of the incident 351 nm light at a small angle onto a focusing mirror and into a calorimeter. The design calls for a plane grating of 500 lines/mm, and approximately 30 nm deep, etched into a fused silica focusing lens and subsequently overcoated with a sol-gel antireflective coating. Gratings of similar aperture and feature size have been produced for other applications by ion etching processes, but, in an effort to reduce substantially the cost of such optics, we are studying the feasibility of making these gratings by wet chemical etching techniques. Experimentation with high-quality fused silica substrates on 5 and 15 cm scale has led to a wet etching process which can meet the design goals and which offers no significant scaleup barriers to full sized optics. The grating is produced by holographic exposure and a series of processing steps using only a photoresist mask and a final hydrofluoric acid etch. Gratings on 15 cm diameter test substrates exhibit absolute diffraction efficiencies from 0.2 - 0.4% with a standard deviation of about 15% of the mean over the full aperture. The efficiency variation is due to variation in linewidth caused by spatial nonuniformities in exposure energy. Uniformity improvements can be realized by using a smaller, more uniform portion of the exposure beam and exposing for longer times. The laser damage threshold for these gratings has been measured at LLNL and found to be identical to that of the fused silica substrate. Scaleup to full-sized substrates will use techniques such as meniscus coating for photoresist, large-aperture holography and other processes already established at LLNL for optics of this size. A prototype sampling grating to be installed on the Beamlet laser will be produced in early 1996.
The proposed National Ignition Facility is a 192 beam Nd:glass laser system capable of driving targets to fusion ignition by the year 2005. A key factor in the flexibility and performance of the laser is a front-end system which provides a precisely formatted beam to each beamline. Each of the injected beams has individually controlled energy, temporal pulseshape, and spatial shape to accommodate beamline-to-beamline variations in gain and saturation. This flexibility also gives target designers the options for precisely controlling the drive to different areas of the target. The design of the front-end laser is described, and initial results are discussed.
We report extensive laser-induced damage threshold measurements on pure and multilayer dielectrics at 1053 and 526 nm for pulse durations, (tau) , ranging from 140 fs to 1 ns. Qualitative differences in the morphology of damage and a departure from the diffusion-dominated (tau) 1/2 scaling indicate that damage results from plasma formation and ablation for (tau) <EQ10 ps and from conventional melting and boiling for (tau) >50 ps. A theoretical model based on electron production via multiphoton ionization, Joule heating, and collisional (avalanche) ionization is in good agreement with both the pulsewidth and wavelength scaling experimental results.
Our extensive measurements of damage thresholds for fused silica and several fluorides (LiF, CaF, MgF, and BaF) at 1053 and 526 nm for pulse durations, (tau) , ranging from 275 fs to 1 ns are reported elsewhere at this meeting. A theoretical model based on electron production via multiphoton ionization, Joule heating, and collisional (avalanche) ionization is in good agreement with experimental results.
Plasma mediated ablation of collagen gels and porcine cornea was studied at various laser pulse durations in the range from 350 fs to 1 ns at 1053 nm wavelength. A time resolved stress detection technique was employed to measure transient stress profiles and amplitudes. Optical microscopy was used to characterize ablation craters qualitatively, while a wide band acoustic transducer helped to quantify tissue mechanical response and the ablation threshold. The ablation threshold was measured as a function of laser pulse duration and linear absorption coefficient. For nanosecond pulses the ablation threshold was found to have a strong dependence on the linear absorption coefficient of the material. As the pulse length decreased into the subpicosecond regime the ablation threshold became insensitive to the linear absorption coefficient. High quality ablation craters with no thermal or mechanical damage to surrounding material were obtained with 350 fs laser pulses. The mechanism of optical breakdown at the tissue surface was theoretically investigated. In the nanosecond regime, optical breakdown proceeds as an electron collisional avalanche ionization initiated by thermal seed electrons. These seed electrons are created by heating of the tissue by linear absorption. In the ultrashort pulse range, optical breakdown is initiated by the multiphoton ionization of the irradiated medium (6 photons in case of tissue irradiated at 1053 nm wavelength), and becomes less sensitive to the linear absorption coefficient. The energy deposition profile is insensitive to both the laser pulse duration and the linear absorption coefficient.
We have developed a chirped pulse amplification system capable of producing femtosecond pulses with energy above one joule. This is accomplished by using a large aperture, flashlamp pumped Cr:LiSrAlF6 (Cr:LiSAF) amplifier. Optimum design of the 19 mm diameter amplifier results in a single pass gain of 5 with good beam quality. This amplifier produces 1.05 J pulses after compression with a width of < 125 fs at a repetition rate of 0.05 Hz.
We report laser-induced damage threshold measurements on pure and multilayer dielectrics and gold-coated optics at 1053 and 526 nm for pulse durations, (tau) , ranging from 140 fs to 1 ns. Damage thresholds of gold coatings are limited to 500 mJ/cm2 in the subpicosecond range from 1053-nm pulses. In dielectrics, qualitative differences in the morphology of damage and a departure from the diffusion-dominated (tau) 1/2 scaling indicate that damage results from plasma formation and ablation for (tau) <EQ 10 ps and from conventional melting and boiling for (tau) > 50 ps. A theoretical model based on electron production via multiphoton ionization, Joule heating, and collisional (avalanche) ionization is in quantitative agreement with both the pulsewidth and wavelength scaling of experimental results.
Currently under design is an X-band photocathode linac FEL system which produces ultra- short (picosecond), high-power (MW) pulses of coherent microwave and millimeter-wave radiation. In this system, the resultant electron bunches are considerably shorter than the wavelength of the emitted radiation, and these bunches coherently emit synchrotron radiation in the wiggler interaction region to generate subnanosecond, millimeter-wave MW pulses. The output radiation pulse length is essentially determined by the slippage between the electron bunch and the electromagnetic waves through the wiggler. The wiggler, which has already been constructed and characterized, produces a 5 kG helically polarized field, with an 84 mm period over a length of 2 meters. The device operates in the fundamental TE11 cylindrical waveguide mode. Close to grazing, where slippage is minimal, the pulses are further compressed because of the very wide instantaneous interaction bandwidth. In this regime, the output pulse duration is determined by the group velocity dispersion in the waveguide and the interaction bandwidth. A planned upgrade for the system is also described.
The interaction of subpicosecond 1.06 micrometers laser light at intensities up to 1018 W/cm2 with dense preformed plasmas is investigated by measurements of the absorption of the laser light in the plasma and by measurements of the production of bremsstrahlung x- rays. Absorption measurements are made by collecting the scattered light in an Ulbricht sphere. Light scattered in the backward and specular directions is collected separately. Measurements are presented for both high and low Z targets. X-ray production is measured using a nine channel filter/scintillator spectrometer.
In this paper we will present work in progress in our experimental investigation of the coupling of intense, sub-picosecond laser pulses with plasmas preformed on solid targets. (This situation is to be contrasted with the interaction of intense laser fields with solid-density matter, a subject which has generated considerable interest in the last several years.) We will discuss our characterization of the energy distribution of energetic electrons which escape a solid target irradiated by an intense laser. We have also performed experiments to study the excitation of parametric instabilities near the quarter-critical layer and second-harmonic generation near the critical layer in the plasma. We will discuss some preliminary scattered light spectroscopy measurements. Other topics related to this work are discussed.
We report preliminary results from the analysis of streaked soft x-ray neon spectra obtained from the interaction of a picosecond Nd:glass laser with a gas jet target. In these experiments streaked spectra show prompt harmonic emission followed by longer time duration soft x-ray line emission. The majority of the line emission observed was found to originate from Li- and Be-like Ne and the major transitions in the observed spectra have been identified. Li-like emission lines were observed to decay faster in time than Be-like transitions, suggesting that recombination is taking place. Line ratios of n equals 4 - 2 and n equals 3 - 2 transitions supported the view that these lines were optically thin and thick, respectively. The time history of Li-like Ne 2p-4d and 2p-3d lines is in good agreement with a simple adiabatic expansion model coupled to a time dependent collisional-radiative code. Further x-ray spectroscopic analysis is underway which is aimed at diagnosing plasma conditions and assessing the potential of this recombining neon plasma as a quasi-steady-state recombination x-ray laser medium.
The role of multiphoton resonances in the formation of the `plateau,' characteristic of high- order harmonic generation, is examined by a series of experiments on both above-threshold ionization and harmonic generation in the rare gases. The shift of intermediate states in and out of resonance by ac Stark effect plays an essential role in the production of high-order harmonic radiation and is found to be responsible for the initiation of the plateau.
The requirements for the production of high power, subplcosecond laser pulses are reviewed. Use of
the chirped-pulse amplification technique makes solid-state materials competitive with dyes and
excimers for the production of subplcosecond pulses. In cases where both high power and short pulses
are required, solid-state materials are shown to be the material of choice. As an example, the design and
performance of a 3.2 Terawatt Nd:Glass laser system based on chirped-pulse amplification is presented.
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