X-ray phase sensitive imaging has been employed in the preclinical settings for more than two decades. The advancement in the technology has allowed to potentially translate this innovative imaging technique to the clinical environment. In-line phase sensitive imaging technique has shown promising potential to be used for breast cancer imaging. A high energy phase sensitive breast tomosynthesis (PBT) prototype system based on the inline phase sensitive imaging technique has been developed for the potential imaging in clinical environment. The prototype system incorporates a microfocus x-ray tube and a flat panel detector having a pixel pitch of 70μm. The microfocus x-ray tube has a tungsten (W) anode, Beryllium (Be) output window and a focal spot size that ranges from 18-50μm, depending on the output power. The x-ray tube/detector configuration produces a geometric magnification (M) of 2.2 and acquires 9 projection views within 15 degrees or 30 projection views within 30 degrees in stop-andshoot scanning mode. A single distance phase retrieval scheme method based on the Phase-Attenuation Duality (PAD) principle is applied on the angular projection views. A filtered back-projection operation reconstructs a set of tomogram slices at 1mm incremental depth within the breast along the z-direction. American College of Radiology phantom images demonstrate that both 2D and tomosynthesis images acquired on the prototype system meet the minimum criteria set by the Mammography Quality Standard Act. We have also imaged mastectomy specimens with the PBT prototype system at the University of Utah Huntsman Cancer Hospital. PBT 2D images and tomosynthesis images slices demonstrate image quality comparable to a conventional digital breast tomosynthesis clinical system.
The goal of this study was to perform a characterization study for an in-line phase contrast x-ray imaging prototype with a mid-energy source. Compared to similar prototypes that use high energies, the mid-energy system offers better balancing between the attenuation and phase induced contrasts. An inline phase sensitive prototype acquired all images for this study. The prototype utilizes a microfocus x-ray tube and a flat panel detector, aligned on an optical rail. The source-to-object distance (SOD) was set to 68.58cm while the source-to-image distance (SID) was set to 150.876cm for a magnification of 𝑀 = 2.2. The modulation transfer function (MTF), noise power spectrum (NPS), and detective quantum efficiency (DQE) were calculated for the prototype with source potentials of 60, 90, and 120kV. The oversampled MTF was calculated for each setting. NPS experiments were conducted with a virtual detector set at the SOD. Exposure at the SID was approximately the same for all NPS experiments. The 90 and 120kVp beams were directed through a 2.5mm Al filter, while 60kVp beams were sent through a 1.2mm Al filter. Results indicate that 60kV imaging yields lower amplitude noise than high energy imaging, while maintaining the same resolving power. The cutoff frequency for each source potential was approximately 14 line pairs per mm (lp/mm). The DQE(0) for 60kV, 90kV, and 120kV were 0.757, 0.564, and 0.571 respectively. The study confirmed the hypothesis that 60kVp phase sensitive x-ray imaging yields a higher DQE than those found at 90 and 120kVp.
Mammographic studies have always been a challenge in women with large or dense breasts. A contrast-detail (CD) phantom and an American College of Radiology (ACR) accredited phantom are used in this study to compare the detectability of the mid-energy phase-contrast x-ray imaging system and conventional x-ray imaging mode among women with hyper-glandular breast tissue. Insert wax from ACR phantom and the contrast-detail test pattern are both inserted between two 70/30 glandular-adipose tissue equivalent plates, to simulate a 5 cm thick compressed dense breast. Both phantoms are imaged by the two modalities: (a): the x-ray bench-top imaging system in contact mode, similar to conventional mammography, operated at 35kV with 0.5 mm aluminum filter, and (b): the mid-energy in-line phasesensitive prototype, which is operated at 59kV, 1.3 mm aluminum filter and the magnification factor of 2.5. Both imaging systems applied an average glandular radiation dose of 1.6 mGy. The results show that the image of ACR phantom which is acquired by mid-energy phase-contrast imaging system reveals more embedded objects within the phantom compare to conventional imaging system under the similar average glandular dose. The contrast-detail curves for CD phantom, obtained from two imaging prototypes, confirm the superior detectability of phase contrast imaging system. Therefore, this preliminary experiment demonstrates that mid-energy phase-contrast x-ray imaging system exceeds the performance of conventional mammography in hyper-glandular breast tissue at the equal level of radiation dose to the patients.
An essential goal of x-ray phase-sensitive imaging is to provide quantitative information such as tissue’s phase maps and electron densities. Various phase retrieval methods have been developed for this task. One such retrieval method-based phase-attenuation duality (PAD) principle and requires only a single exposure for the phase retrieval. We have developed a multi-material loaded soft tissue phantom that can be used for the investigate the accuracy of the PAD-based method in retrieving the phase maps and electron tissue densities. The phantom consists of five inserts; muscle, lung, breast, adipose and Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Each insert had a diameter of 5 mm and a length of 8.2 mm, respectively. The inserts were fitted in a 3D printed circular disk. An x-ray phase sensitive prototype was used to image a PMMA slab for testing to compare the accuracy of the retrieved phase maps with the theoretically estimated values. With the PAD-based method, the average phase value was about -200 radians while the theoretical estimate was -185 radians. A comprehensive future study will be conducted with the newly design phantom to demonstrate further the potential benefits of using x-ray phase-sensitive imaging for the quantification and identification of tissues.
The objective of this study was to demonstrate the capability of the high-energy in-line phase contrast imaging in detecting the breast tumors which are undetectable by conventional x-ray imaging but detectable by ultrasound. Experimentally, a CIRS multipurpose breast phantom with heterogeneous 50% glandular and 50% adipose breast tissue was imaged by high-energy in-line phase contrast system, conventional x-ray system and ultrasonography machine. The high-energy in-line phase contrast projection was acquired at 120 kVp, 0.3 mAs with the focal spot size of 18.3 μm. The conventional x-ray projection was acquired at 40 kVp, 3.3 mAs with the focal spot size of 22.26 μm. Both of the x-ray imaging acquisitions were conducted with a unique mean glandular dose of 0.08 mGy. As the result, the high-energy in-line phase contrast system was able to detect one lesion-like object which was also detected by the ultrasonography. This object was spherical shape with the length of about 12.28 mm. Also, the conventional x-ray system was not able to detect any objects. This result indicated the advantages provided by high-energy in-line phase contrast over conventional x-ray system in detecting lesion-like object under the same radiation dose. To meet the needs of current clinical strategies for high-density breasts screening, breast phantoms with higher glandular densities will be employed in future studies.
The objective of this study is to demonstrate the potential of using the High-energy in-line phase contrast x-ray imaging to detect lesions that are indistinguishable by conventional x-ray mammography but are detectable by supplemental ultrasound screening within dense breasts. For this study, a custom-made prototype x-ray/ultrasound dualmodality phantom that mimics dense breast is created to include embedded carbon fiber disks with multiple diameters and thicknesses. The phase contrast image is acquired using a prototype at 120kVp, 67μA, exposure time of 16.7sec and focal spot size of 18.3μm with average glandular dose (AGD) of 0.3mGy under a geometric magnification of 2.48. The conventional x-ray image is acquired with a bench top system operating at 40kVp, 300μA, exposure time of 50sec and same AGD. The results demonstrate that conventional x-ray imaging is unable to detect any of the carbon fiber disks, while phase contrast imaging and ultrasonography are able to detect most or all of the disks under the applied experimental conditions. These results illustrate phase contrast imaging is capable of detecting targets in a dual-modality phantom which simulates lesions in dense breast tissue, when the simulated lesions are not distinguishable by conventional mammography. Therefore mammographic screening with phase contrast technique could eventually replace both x-ray and ultrasonography for screening detection of small lesions with microcalcification in dense breasts where pathologic lesions are masked due to highly glandular tissue. These results encourage further investigation using high glandular density phantoms to further evaluate the effectiveness of phase contrast imaging as a single modality test, which combines the advantages of both x-ray and ultrasound imaging in cancer screening of patients with dense breasts.
The characteristic performance of a photon counting detector for X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) is investigated. The investigations are first performed in three aspects: X-ray photon energy (keV) to pulse height (mV) conversion, noise floor determination, and linear detection ranges. Then, theoretical models are applied to evaluate the detection efficiency of X-ray photons with respect to an increased incident photon rate. Last, through exciting 100% pure GNPs by a conventional X-ray tube operated at a voltage of 110kVp, we acquire XRF spectrum in the threshold mode, based on which multi-energy thresholds are selected for XRF imaging of GNPs with low concentrations. Preliminary XRF imaging results of GNPs obtained in the imaging mode are presented and analyzed. This investigation study is essential to the development of fast and accurate XRF imaging of GNPs as well as other high atomic (Z) imaging contrast agents absorbed in cancerous cells.
The objective of this study was to compare the detectability of simulated objects within a dense breast phantom using high energy x-rays for phase sensitive breast imaging in comparison with a conventional imaging system. A 5 cm thick phantom was used which represented a compressed breast consisting of 70% glandular and 30% adipose tissue ratio in non-uniform background. The phantom had a 6 × 6 matrix of holes with milled depths ranging from 1 to 0.1 mm and diameters ranging from 4.25 to 0.25 mm representing simulated tumors. The in-line phase sensitive prototype was equipped with a micro-focus x-ray source and a flat panel detector with a 50 μm pixel pitch, both mounted on an optical rail. Phase contrast image of the phantom was acquired at 120 kVp, 4.5 mAs at source to object distance (SOD) of 68 cm and source to image detector distance (SIDD) of 170 cm with a geometric magnification (M) of 2.5. A 2.5 mm aluminum (Al) filter was used for beam hardening. The conventional image was acquired using the same porotype with the phantom in contact with the detector at 40 kVp, 12.5 mAs under SID = 68 cm. The mean glandular dose (Dg) for both the acquisitions was 1.3 mGy. The observer study and CNR analyses indicated that the phase contrast image had higher disk detectability as compared to the conventional image. The edge enhancement provided by the phase sensitive images warrants in identifying boundaries of malignant tissues and in providing optimal results in phase retrieval process. The potential demonstrated by this study for imaging a dense breast with a high energy phase sensitive x-ray imaging to improve tumor detection in warrants further investigation of this technique.
In this study, the AuNP k-shell fluorescence spectra were measured by using a 100 mm long collimator to improve the detectability. The AuNPs were suspended in deionized water at different concentrations. The AuNP suspensions were excited by a micro focal spot x-ray tube with 130 kVp, 300 μA x-ray exposures. The emissions of the AuNP fluorescence were measured by a spectrometer located with an angle of 90 degrees with respect to the excitation beam. The fluorescence acquisition durations for each concentration mode were 3000 s. A 1.0 mm Pb filter and a 1 mm Al filter were utilized to optimize excitation beam and fluorescence emission, respectively. As a result, the k-shell fluorescence peaks, 66.99 keV and 68.80 keV of AuNP, were measured and observed in 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 mg/mL concentration modes. The linear relationship between the AuNP suspension concentrations and the number of photons of the fluorescence peaks were observed in the range of 0.1–4.0 mg/mL. The results of experimental measurements demonstrated up to 0.1 mg/mL (0.01 % in weight concentration) detectability.
The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the feasibility of using a high-energy in-line phase contrast tomosynthesis system to quantitatively imaging microbubbles in a tissue simulating phantom under a limited radiation dose. The imaging system used in the investigation was a bench top in-line phase contrast tomosynthesis prototype operated under 120 kVp tube voltage and 0.5 mA tube current. A prime beam filter made of 2.3 mm Cu, 0.8 mm Pb and 1.0 mm Al was employed to obtain as large as possible portion of x-ray photon energy higher than 60 keV. The tissue simulating phantom was built by three acrylic slabs and a wax slab to mimic a 40 mm thick compressed breast. There were two tiny-sized structures with average 1 mm depth engraved on the two different layers. The microbubble suspensions with different concentrations were injected into those tiny structures. The inline phase contrast angular projections acquired were used to reconstruct the in-plane slices of the tiny structures on different layers. The CNRs vs microbubble concentrations were investigated. As the result, the microbubble suspensions were clearly visible, showing higher CNR when compared with the areas with no microbubble. Furthermore, a monotonously increasing relation between CNRs and microbubble concentrations was observed after calculating the area CNR of the phase contrast tomosynthesis slices.
This study compares the spatial resolution in step-and-shoot and continuous motion acquisition modes of digital tomosynthesis using a bench-top prototype designed for breast phantoms imaging. The prototype employs a flat panel detector with a 50 μm pixel pitch, a micro focus x-ray tube and a motorized stage. A sharp metal edge with a thickness of 0.2 mm was used to measure the modulation transfer function (MTF). The edge was rotated from −7.5° to +7.5° with 1.5° increments to acquire 11 angular projections using 40 kVp, 500 μA with 5.55 s per projection. In continuous motion mode, the motorized stage moved the test object for the whole exposure time at a speed of 0.377 mm/s. The impact of acquisition speed in continuous DBT was also investigated, and a high speed of 0.753 mm/s was used. In step-and-shoot mode, the cutoff frequencies (10% MTF) in projection view (0°) and reconstructed DBT slices were 5.55 lp/mm and 4.95 lp/mm. Spatial resolution dropped in the continuous motion mode of the DBT due to the blur caused by the rotation of the stage and the cutoff frequencies reduced to 3.6 lp/mm and 3.18 lp/mm in the projection view (0º) and reconstructed DBT slices. At high rotational speed in continuous motion mode, the cutoff frequencies in the DBT slices dropped by 17 % to 2.65 lp/mm. Rotational speed of the rotation stage and spatial resolution are interconnected. Hence, reducing the motion blur in the continuous acquisition mode is important to maintain high spatial resolution for diagnostic purposes.
The objective of this study was to characterize the operating parameters of an in-vivo micro CT system. In-plane spatial resolution, noise, geometric accuracy, CT number uniformity and linearity, and phase effects were evaluated using various phantoms. The system employs a flat panel detector with a 127 μm pixel pitch, and a micro focus x-ray tube with a focal spot size ranging from 5-30 μm. The system accommodates three magnification sets of 1.72, 2.54 and 5.10. The in-plane cutoff frequencies (10% MTF) ranged from 2.31 lp/mm (60 mm FOV, M=1.72, 2×2 binning) to 13 lp/mm (10 mm FOV, M=5.10, 1×1 binning). The results were qualitatively validated by a resolution bar pattern phantom and the smallest visible lines were in 30-40 μm range. Noise power spectrum (NPS) curves revealed that the noise peaks exponentially increased as the geometric magnification (M) increased. True in-plane pixel spacing and slice thickness were within 2% of the system’s specifications. The CT numbers in cone beam modality are greatly affected by scattering and thus they do not remain the same in the three magnifications. A high linear relationship (R2 > 0.999) was found between the measured CT numbers and Hydroxyapatite (HA) loadings of the rods of a water filled mouse phantom. Projection images of a laser cut acrylic edge acquired at a small focal spot size of 5 μm with 1.5 fps revealed that noticeable phase effects occur at M=5.10 in the form of overshooting at the boundary of air and acrylic. In order to make the CT numbers consistent across all the scan settings, scatter correction methods may be a valuable improvement for this system.
The purpose of this study was to determine the Contrast to Noise Ratio (CNR) of the x-ray images taken with the phase contrast imaging mode and compare them with the CNR of the images taken under the conventional mode. For each mode, three images were taken under three exposure conditions of 100 kVp (2.8mAs), 120 kVp (1.9mAs) and 140kVp (1.42mAs). A 1.61cm thick contrast detail phantom was used as an imaging object. For phase contrast, the source to image detector distance (SID) was 182.88 cm and the source to object (SOD) distance was 73.15 cm. The SOD was the same as SID in the conventional imaging mode. A computed radiography (CR) plate was used as a detector and the output CR images were converted to linear form in relation with the incident x-ray exposure. To calculate CNR, an image processing software was used to determine the mean pixel value and the standard deviation of the pixels in the region of interest (ROI) and in the nearby background around ROI. At any given exposure condition investigated in this study, the CNR values for the phase contrast images were better as compared to the corresponding conventional mode images. The superior image quality in terms of CNR is contributed by the phase-shifts resulted contrast, as well as the reduced scatters due to the air gap between the object and the detector.
This research is aimed at studying the advantages of an x-ray phase-contrast tomosynthesis prototype by using
phantoms. A prototype system is assembled with a micro-focus x-ray source, a rotating stage and a computed
radiography detector mounted on an optical rail. A custom designed bubble wrap phantom is used in experiments.
Angular projection images are acquired from -20° to +20° with 2° interval. The in-plane slices are reconstructed. The feature area on the phantom is observed. The prototype system provides an intrinsic way to investigate the potential and imaging quality of a phase-contrast tomosynthesis imaging method. As the result, phase-contrast tomosynthesis imaging method is demonstrated for its advantages in avoiding structure noise and overlapping issues by comparing the results acquired by computed radiography and phase-contrast radiography.
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