Second harmonic generation (SHG) polarization microscopy was used to investigate the organization of myosin nanomotors in myofilaments of muscle cells. The distribution of the second-order nonlinear susceptibility component ratio χzzz(2)/χzxx(2) along anisotropic bands of sarcomeres revealed differences between the headless and head-containing regions of myofilaments. The polarization-in polarization-out SHG measurements of headless myosin mutants of indirect flight muscle in Drosophila melanogaster confirmed a lower susceptibility component ratio compared to the head-containing myocytes with wild-type myosins. The increase in the ratio is assigned to the change in the deflection angle of the myosin S2 domain and possible contribution of myosin heads. The nonlinear susceptibility component ratio is a sensitive indicator of the myosin structure, and therefore, it can be used for conformational studies of myosin nanomotors. The measured ratio values can also be used as the reference for ab initio calculations of nonlinear optical properties of different parts of myosins.
Imaging hematoxylin-and-eosin-stained cancerous histological sections with multicontrast nonlinear excitation fluorescence, second- and third-harmonic generation (THG) microscopy reveals cellular structures with extremely high image contrast. Absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy together with second hyperpolarizability measurements of the dyes shows that strong THG appears due to neutral hemalum aggregation and is subsequently enhanced by interaction with eosin. Additionally, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy reveals eosin fluorescence quenching by hemalums, showing better suitability of only eosin staining for fluorescence microscopy. Multicontrast nonlinear microscopy has the potential to differentiate between cancerous and healthy tissue at a single cell level.
Drosophila melanogaster larva myocytes are imaged with second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy undergoing forced stretching and rhythmic contractions to determine the nature of the SHG signal. During stretching, double peaked SHG profiles of the anisotropic (A-) bands evolve into single peaks with a higher SHG intensity. The dip in the intensity profile at the center of the A-band is attributed to destructive interference from out-of-phase second harmonic radiating myosin molecules that, in the central region of myofilaments, are arranged antiparallel. An intensity increase at the center of the A-band appears during forced stretching due to a small, less than 100 nm, intermyofilament separation of the antiparallel myosin molecules leading to constructive interference of the SHG radiation. In addition, the same phenomenon occurs during periodic contractions of the myocyte, where an SHG intensity increase with the lengthening of sarcomeres is observed. The SHG intensity dependence on sarcomere length can be used for imaging myocyte contractions with low resolution microscopy, and can be applied for the development of diagnostic tools where monitoring of muscle contraction dynamics is required.
We report on the development and successful application of a femtosecond Yb:KGd(WO4)2 laser for multimodal imaging of various biological samples. Its operation at longer wavelengths, 1029 nm, provided efficient excitation and greatly reduced sample photobleaching. The laser produced ~300 fs pulses with up to 100 nJ of energy at 14.3 MHz repetition rate. This laser system enabled continuous imaging of various live samples for prolonged periods of time. The details of laser development and fluorescence imaging of isolated chloroplasts are reported.
The functional dynamics and structure of both larval and adult Drosophila melanogaster muscle were
investigated with a nonlinear multimodal microscope. Imaging was carried out using a home built microscope capable of
recording the multiphoton excitation fluorescence, second harmonic generation, and third harmonic generation signals
simultaneously at a scanning rate of up to ~12 frames/sec. The sample was excited by a home built femtosecond
Ti:Sapphire laser at 840 nm, or by a Yb-ion doped potassium gadolinium tungstate (Yb:KGW) crystal based oscillator at
1042 nm. There was no observable damage detected in the myocyte after prolonged scanning with either of the lasers.
Microscopic second harmonic generation (SHG) appears particularly strong in the myocytes. This allows the
fast contraction dynamics of the myocytes to be followed. The larger sarcomere size observed in the larvae myocytes is
especially well suited for studying the contraction dynamics. Microscopic imaging of muscle contractions showed
different relaxation and contraction rates. The SHG intensities were significantly higher in the relaxed state of the
myocyte compared to the contracted state. The imaging also revealed disappearance of SHG signal in highly stretched
sarcomeres, indicating that SHG diminishes in the disordered structures. The study illustrates that SHG microscopy,
combined with other nonlinear contrast mechanisms, can help to elucidate physiological mechanisms of contraction. This
study also provides further insight into the mechanisms of harmonic generation in biological tissue and shows that
crystalline arrangement of macromolecules has a determining factor for the high efficiency second harmonic generation
from the bulk structures.
We present the design and development of a diode-pumped high average power femtosecond laser based on a crystal of Yb-ion doped potassium gadolinium tungstate (Yb:KGW) and a semiconductor saturable absorber for passive mode-locking. The laser delivered up to 0.85 W of average power with ~200 fs pulses at a repetition rate of 14.6 MHz, corresponding to a pulse energy of 60 nJ with a peak power of ~300 kW. The developed laser system was used to visualize the structure of muscle cells from Drosophila melanogaster larvae in vivo by acquiring high-resolution images with a nonlinear multimodal scanning microscope, capable of simultaneous detection of two-photon fluorescence, second and third harmonic signals.
Nonlinear microscopy is a very attractive tool for studying photosynthetic organisms on cellular and subcellular levels.
The multimodal microscope can be employed to image photosynthetic structures simultaneously with multiphoton
excitation fluorescence (MPF), second harmonic generation (SHG), and third harmonic generation (THG) contrast
mechanisms. Although the multimodal nonlinear microscope delivers invaluable information about the structure,
spectroscopic properties, and functional dynamics of photosynthetic systems, the prompt light-induced changes of highly
light sensitive pigment-protein complexes complicate the extensive study of photosynthetic organisms. In this work, we
investigated the extent of light-induced changes in chloroplasts from higher plants by imaging with a Ti:Sapphire
femtosecond laser and a Yb-ion doped potassium gadolinium tungstate (Yb:KGW) femtosecond laser. The Ti:Sapphire
laser delivered 800 nm wavelength and ~25 fs duration pulses at a 26.7 MHz repetition rate. In comparison, the
Yb:KGW laser provided a 1042 nm wavelength, ~200 fs pulses at a repetition rate of 14.6 MHz. The 800 nm pulses
predominantly excited chlorophyll pigments via two-photon excitation, while 1042 nm excitation resulted in two-photon
absorption of carotenoids. The induced fluorescence quenching, and decrease in SHG and THG signal was much
stronger when imaged with a Ti:Sapphire laser. Prolonged imaging of up to tenths of minutes with the Yb:KGW laser
did not result in appreciable changes of all three nonlinear signals. The difference in the light-induced changes most
probably appears due to the difference in excited state dynamics following chlorophyll or carotenoid excitation. The
slow component of MPF and THG changes as well as change in SHG reflects the light-induced macroorganization of the
grana, while the fast MPF and THG component is tentatively attributed to the generation of quenchers from chlorophyll
molecules. The success in imaging photosynthetic samples for prolonged periods of time with a Yb:KGW laser opens a
new window of opportunity for thorough in vivo investigations of photosynthetic structures.
Our newly developed multimodal microscope enables simultaneous collection of second harmonic generation (SHG), third harmonic generation (THG) and multiphoton excitation fluorescence (MPF) signals. The signals can be generated within different or the same intercellular structures. In comparing two signals, traditional methods of image crosscorrelation analysis using Pearson's coefficient provide a general parameter as to whether the images are similar, however it does not give detailed information about correlation of different structures inside the images. We present here a new technique that employs a pixel by pixel analysis over an entire area or volume that is used to correlate the structures appearing in the images. The result of the analysis reveals structures within the sample that are generated by both nonlinear signals as well as highlighting the structures that are generated by only one of the nonlinear signals. The algorithm provides a means to colocalize different structures revealed by the different nonlinear contrast mechanisms. Structural correlation maps are useful in identifying the origin of structures in one nonlinear contrast mechanism when the origin of structures in another is known. Image analysis has also been exploited for sequences of images taken in time. The intensity fluctuations in time for each pixel reveal regions of intense physiological activity in biological samples. Correlation of time dependent fluctuations from different pixels in the image time series allows construction of the structural map that undergoes similar time behavior or appears out of phase. These structural correlation analysis techniques are demonstrated based on polystyrene beads and cardiomyocytes.
Laser scanning nonlinear optical microscopy is used to study structure and dynamics of cellular and sub-cellular structures in vivo. Under tight focusing conditions with a high numerical aperture objective, nonlinear optical signals such as third harmonic generation (THG), second harmonic generation (SHG), and multiphoton excitation fluorescence (MPF) are simultaneously produced. MPF is extensively used in biological imaging. Unfortunately, fluorescence is accompanied by heat dissipation in the sample and photobleaching effects. On the other hand, parametric processes such as SHG and THG are free of photobleaching since they involve only virtual electronic states where there is no transfer of energy into the medium. There are many naturally occurring structures that exhibit harmonic generation effects, and hence, do not require dyes that can potentially disrupt the normal functionality of the system. SHG is efficiently generated in non-centrosymmetric media, such as chiral structures and interfaces. The THG signal is generated due to a break in symmetry at interfaces and can be enhanced by the presence of multilamellar structures, as in the mitochondria or chloroplasts. Many interesting biological processes, such as signal transduction in neurons or ATP synthesis in mitochondria, involve the movement of ions across membranes. THG and SHG are sensitive to changing electric potential gradients, and hence are ideally suited for dynamical investigations of these biological processes. The present work will expose the structural factors and conditions that influence THG and SHG generation efficiencies in biological samples. Examples of visualizing chloroplasts and mitochondria will illustrate the advantages of harmonic generation microscopy for studying structural and functional properties of the in vivo systems.
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