A novel optical fibre device is proposed for real-time measurements of near infrared chromatic refractive index signature of a liquid medium in the 1100-1700 nm range. This inline optical fibre chromatic refractive index analyser is based upon collocated fibre long period gratings written adjacently in the core by femtosecond laser inscription yielding 8 attenuation bands associated with different cladding modes, yielding 8 independent measurements across the entire wavelength range. This fibre device is tested on a series of chemical compounds associated with wines. The results for each compound yielded distinctive chromatic responses. The limits of detection for this fibre devices ranged from 1×10-3 to 6×10-5 mol/L for the compounds associated with wines. This demonstrates a potential usefulness of such an optical fibre sensor capable of monitoring in real-time effective chromatic refractive index signatures that is not offered by any current technology.
The authors report the use of FBGs to monitor the infusion process of the Resin Transfer Molding (RTM). Composite structure can be very large, ensuring that the resin has reached every part of the mold during the infusion process becomes a critical step to ensure the structural integrity and minimize failure. During the infusion stage of the process, the FBG undergoes a blue wavelength to red wavelength shift. The magnitude of wavelength shifts depends upon the location and depth of the sensors along with the viscosity of resin (we used a resin-like material with similar viscous properties) being used for the infusion. The observed wavelength shifts varied from ~10pm to ~400pm, which is small but still significant and readily measurable also showing reasonable repeatability for all experiments conducted with the same conditions. Evidence will be presented to show that viscous force is a major factor in explaining the observed FBG wavelength shifts. Due to the small wavelength shifts of the FBG sensors, this allows the opportunity to embed a dense population of sensors within a single structure, hence ensuring a satisfactory spatial resolution to monitor the resin flow front to ensure complete impregnation of the reinforcement.
Fiber optic sensors are fabricated for detecting static magnetic fields. The sensors consist of a UV inscribed long period grating with two 50 micron long microslots. The microslots are fabricated using the femtosecond laser based inscribe and etch technique. The microslots and the fiber surface are coated with a magnetostrictive material Terfenol-D. A spectral sensitivity of 1.15 pm/mT was measured in transmission with a working resolution of ±0.2 mT for a static magnetic field strength below 10 mT. These devices also present a different response when the spatial orientation of the fiber was adjusted relative to the magnetic field lines.
We explored the potential of a carbon nanotube (CNT) coating working in conjunction with a recently developed localized surface plasmon (LSP) device (based upon a nanostructured thin film consisting of of nano-wires of platinum) with ultra-high sensitivity to changes in the surrounding index. The uncoated LSP sensor’s transmission resonances exhibited a refractive index sensitivity of Δλ/Δn ~ -6200nm/RIU and ΔΙ/Δn ~5900dB/RIU, which is the highest reported spectral sensitivity of a fiber optic sensor to bulk index changes within the gas regime. The complete device provides the first demonstration of the chemically specific gas sensing capabilities of CNTs utilizing their optical characteristics. This is proven by investigating the spectral response of the sensor before and after the adhesion of CNTs to alkane gases along with carbon dioxide. The device shows a distinctive spectral response in the presence of gaseous CO2 over and above what is expected from general changes in the bulk refractive index. This fiber device yielded a limit of detection of 150ppm for CO2 at a pressure of one atmosphere. Additionally the adhered CNTs actually reduce sensitivity of the device to changes in bulk refractive index of the surrounding medium. The polarization properties of the LSP sensor resonances are also investigated and it is shown that there is a reduction in the overall azimuthal polarization after the CNTs are applied. These optical devices offer a way of exploiting optically the chemical selectivity of carbon nanotubes, thus providing the potential for real-world applications in gas sensing in many inflammable and explosive environments.
The cardiovascular health of the human population is a major concern for medical clinicians, with cardiovascular diseases responsible for 48% of all deaths worldwide, according to the World Health Organization. The development of new diagnostic tools that are practicable and economical to scrutinize the cardiovascular health of humans is a major driver for clinicians. We offer a new technique to obtain seismocardiographic signals up to 54 Hz covering both ballistocardiography (below 20 Hz) and audible heart sounds (20 Hz upward), using a system based on curvature sensors formed from fiber optic long period gratings. This system can visualize the real-time three-dimensional (3-D) mechanical motion of the heart by using the data from the sensing array in conjunction with a bespoke 3-D shape reconstruction algorithm. Visualization is demonstrated by adhering three to four sensors on the outside of the thorax and in close proximity to the apex of the heart; the sensing scheme revealed a complex motion of the heart wall next to the apex region of the heart. The detection scheme is low-cost, portable, easily operated and has the potential for ambulatory applications.
Cardiovascular health of the human population is a major concern for medical clinicians, with cardiovascular diseases responsible for 48% of all deaths worldwide, according to the World Health Organisation. Therefore the development of new practicable and economical diagnostic tools to scrutinise the cardiovascular health of humans is a major driver for clinicians. We offer a new technique to obtain seismocardiographic signals covering both ballistocardiography (below 20Hz) and audible heart sounds (20Hz upwards). The detection scheme is based upon an array of curvature/displacement sensors using fibre optic long period gratings interrogated using a variation of the derivative spectroscopy interrogation technique.
We demonstrate a bi-metal coating (platinum and gold or silver) localised surface plasmon resonance fibre device that produces an index spectral sensitivity of over 11,000 nm/RIU, yielding an index resolution of 5×10-6 in the aqueous index regime, consisting of a structured multi-layered thin film on D-shaped fibre.
A new generation of surface plasmonic optical fibre sensors is fabricated using multiple coatings deposited on a lapped section of a single mode fibre. Post-deposition UV laser irradiation using a phase mask produces a nano-scaled surface relief grating structure, resembling nano-wires. The overall length of the individual corrugations is approximately 14 μm with an average full width half maximum of 100 nm. Evidence is presented to show that these surface structures result from material compaction created by the silicon dioxide and germanium layers in the multi-layered coating and the surface topology is capable of supporting localised surface plasmons. The coating compaction induces a strain gradient into the D-shaped optical fibre that generates an asymmetric periodic refractive index profile which enhances the coupling of the light from the core of the fibre to plasmons on the surface of the coating. Experimental data are presented that show changes in spectral characteristics after UV processing and that the performance of the sensors increases from that of their pre-UV irradiation state. The enhanced performance is illustrated with regards to change in external refractive index and demonstrates high spectral sensitivities in gaseous and aqueous index regimes ranging up to 4000 nm/RIU for wavelength and 800 dB/RIU for intensity. The devices generate surface plasmons over a very large wavelength range, (visible to 2 μm) depending on the polarization state of the illuminating light.
An array of in-line curvature sensors on a garment is used to monitor the thoracic and abdominal movements of a human during respiration. The results are used to obtain volumetric changes of the human torso in agreement with a spirometer used simultaneously at the mouth. The array of 40 in-line fiber Bragg gratings is used to produce 20 curvature sensors at different locations, each sensor consisting of two fiber Bragg gratings. The 20 curvature sensors and adjoining fiber are encapsulated into a low-temperature-cured synthetic silicone. The sensors are wavelength interrogated by a commercially available system from Moog Insensys, and the wavelength changes are calibrated to recover curvature. A three-dimensional algorithm is used to generate shape changes during respiration that allow the measurement of absolute volume changes at various sections of the torso. It is shown that the sensing scheme yields a volumetric error of 6%. Comparing the volume data obtained from the spirometer with the volume estimated with the synchronous data from the shape-sensing array yielded a correlation value 0.86 with a Pearson's correlation coefficient p<0.01.
We present data on the development a new type of optical fibre polariser and the characterisation of its wavelength
properties. The device is fashioned using a two step process. Firstly, a standard UV long period grating (LPG) with a
period of 330μm is inscribed into hydrogenated SMF-28, followed by femtosecond laser ablation of a groove parallel to
the fibre axis. The UV inscribed LPGs have inherently low birefringence. However, the removal of the cladding layer
parallel to the location of the LPG within the fibre core (as a result the ablation) modifies the cladding modes that couple
with the LPG. Furthermore, the groove breaks the fibre symmetry introducing a non-uniform stress profile across the
fibre cross section leading to significant birefringence. We show that increasing the depth of the groove increases the
birefringence, and this behaviour coupled with the ability to control the wavelength location of the LPGs attenuations
peaks results in a polariser able to operate at almost any wavelength and birefringence. The maximum birefringence
reported here as polarisation mode splitting was approximately 39±0.1nm with a polarisation loss of 10dB.
A novel device for the detection and characterisation of static magnetic fields is presented. It consists of a femtosecond
laser inscribed fibre Bragg grating (FBG) that is incorporated into an optical fibre with a femtosecond laser micromachined
slot. The symmetry of the fibre is broken by the micro-slot, producing non-uniform strain across the fibre cross
section. The sensing region is coated with Terfenol-D making the device sensitive to static magnetic fields, whereas the
symmetry breaking results in a vectorial sensor for the detection of magnetic fields as low as 0.046 mT with a resolution
of ±0.3mT in transmission and ±0.7mT in reflection. The sensor output is directly wavelength encoded from the FBG
filtering, leading to simple demodulation through the monitoring of wavelength shifts that result as the fibre structure
changes shape in response to the external magnetic field. The use of a femtosecond laser to both inscribe the FBG and
micro-machine the slot in a single stage, prior to coating the device, significantly simplifies the sensor fabrication.
A series of surface plasmonic fibre devices were fabricated using multiple coatings deposited on a lapped section of a
single mode fibre and post-fabrication UV laser irradiation processing with a phase mask, producing a surface relief
grating structure. These devices showed high spectral sensitivity in the aqueous index regime ranging up to 4000
nm/RIU for wavelength and 800 dB/RIU for intensity. The devices were then coated with human thrombin binding
aptamer. Several concentrations of thrombin in buffer solution were made, ranging from 1nM to 1μM. All the
concentrations were detectable by the devices demonstrating that sub-nM concentrations may be monitored.
A series of surface plasmonic fibre devices were fabricated using multiple coatings deposited on a lapped section of a
single mode fibre. Guided mode coupling to surface plasmons was promoted following UV laser irradiation of the coated
region through a phase mask, which generated a surface relief grating structure. The devices showed high spectral
sensitivities and strong coupling for low refractive indices as compared to other grating fibre devices. The plasmonic
devices were used to detect the variation in the refractive indices of alkane gases with measured wavelength and
coupling sensitivity to index of 1900 nm/RIU and 4000 dB/RIU, respectively.
The use of high intensity femtosecond laser sources for inscribing fibre gratings has attained significant interest. The
principal advantage of high-energy pulses is their ability for grating inscription in any material type without
preprocessing or special core doping. In the field of fibre optical sensing LPGs written in photonic crystal fibre have a
distinct advantage of low temperature sensitivity over gratings written in conventional fibre and thus minimal
temperature cross-sensitivity. Previous studies have indicated that LPGs written by a point-by-point inscription scheme
using a low repetition femtosecond laser exhibit post-fabrication evolution leading to temporal instabilities at room
temperatures with respect to spectral location, strength and birefringence of the attenuation bands. These spectral
instabilities of LPGs are studied in photonic crystal fibres (endlessly single mode microstructure fibre) to moderately
high temperatures 100°C to 200°C and their performance compared to fusion-arc fabricated LPG. Initial results suggest
that the fusion-arc fabricated LPG demonstrate less spectral instability for a given constant and moderate temperature,
and are similar to the results obtained when inscribed in a standard single mode fibre.
We report on the use of thin film coatings, both single and multi-layered, deposited on the flat side of a
lapped, D-shaped fibre to enhance the sensitivity of two kinds of surface plasmon resonance based optical
fibre sensors. The first kind involves the use of a tilted Bragg grating inscribed within the fibre core, prior to
fibre coating, while the second relies on a surface relief grating photoinscribed after the fibre has been coated.
Some of the devices operate in air with high coupling efficiency in excess of 40dB and an estimated index
sensitivity of Δλ/Δn = 90nm from 1 to 1.15 index range showing potential for gas sensing. Other sensors
produced index sensitivities (Δλ/Δn) ranging from 6790nm to 12500nm in the aqueous index regime. The
materials used for these fibre optical devices are germanium, silica, silver, gold and palladium.
We demonstrate a surface plasmon resonance sensor that operates in air and has index resolution ~10-4 in the 1 to 1.3
index range. The sensor comprises a multi-layered thin film on a D-shaped fibre.
A series of LPGs with the same period was inscribed by femtosecond laser into photonic crystal fibre with various
powers. All suffered post-fabrication spectral evolution at low temperatures, apparently related to inscription power.
A series of LPGs was inscribed in photonic crystal fibre by a low repetition femtosecond laser system. When subjected
to bending they were found to be spectrally sensitive to bend orientation and displayed a strong polarisation dependence.
The use of high intensity femtosecond laser sources for inscribing fibre gratings has attained significant interest. The
principal advantage of high-energy pulses is their ability for grating inscription in any material type without pre-processing
or special core doping - the inscription process is controlled multi-photon absorption, void generation and
subsequent local refractive index changes. The formation of grating structures in photonics crystal fibre has proven
difficult, as the presence of holes within the fibre that allow wave-guidance impair and scatter the femtosecond
inscription beam. Here we report on the consistent manufacture of long period gratings in endlessly single mode
microstructure fibre and on their characterisation to external perturbations. Long period gratings are currently the subject
of considerable research interest due to their potential applications as filters and as sensing devices, responsive to strain,
temperature, bending and refractive index. Compared to the more mature fibre Bragg grating sensors, LPGs have more
complex spectra, usually with broader spectral features. On the other hand they are intrinsically sensitive to bending and
refractive index. Perhaps more importantly, the fibre design and choice of grating period can have a considerable
influence over the sensitivity to the various parameters, for example allowing the creation of a bend sensor with minimal
temperature cross-sensitivity. This control is not possible with FBG sensors. Here we compare the effects of symmetric
and asymmetric femtosecond laser inscription.
A series of in-line curvature sensors on a garment are used to monitor the thoracic and abdominal movements of a human during respiration. These results are used to obtain volumetric tidal changes of the human torso in agreement with a spirometer used simultaneously at the mouth. The curvature sensors are based on long-period gratings (LPGs) written in a progressive three-layered fiber to render the LPGs insensitive to the refractive index external to the fiber. A curvature sensor consists of the fiber long-period grating laid on a carbon fiber ribbon, which is then encapsulated in a low-temperature curing silicone rubber. The sensors have a spectral sensitivity to curvature, d/dR from ~7-nm m to ~9-nm m. The interrogation technique is borrowed from derivative spectroscopy and monitors the changes in the transmission spectral profile of the LPG's attenuation band due to curvature. The multiplexing of the sensors is achieved by spectrally matching a series of distributed feedback (DFB) lasers to the LPGs. The versatility of this sensing garment is confirmed by it being used on six other human subjects covering a wide range of body mass indices. Just six fully functional sensors are required to obtain a volumetric error of around 6%.
A series of nine in-line curvature sensors on a garment are used to monitor the thoracic and abdominal movements of a
human during respiration for application to Human Respiratory Plethysmography. These results are used to obtain
volumetric tidal changes of the human torso which show agreement with data from a spirometer used simultaneously to
recorded the inspired and expired volume at the mouth during both rhythmic and transient breathing patterns. The
curvature sensors are based upon long period gratings which are written in a progressive three layered fibre to render
them insensitive to refractive index changes. The sensor consists of the long period grating laid upon a carbon fibre
ribbon, with this then encapsulated in a low temperature curing silicone rubber. The sensing array is multiplexed and
interrogated using a derivative spectroscopy based technique to monitor the response of the LPGs' attenuation bands to
curvature. The versatility of this scheme is demonstrated by applying the same garment and sensors to various human
body types and sizes. It was also found from statistical analysis of the sensing array data, in conjunction with the
measurements taken with a spirometer, that 11 to 12 sensors should be required to obtain an absolute volumetric error of
5%.
We demonstrate the use of tilted fibre gratings to assist the generation of infrared surface plasmon resonances with short
propagation lengths, resulting in a high index resolution of 2×10-5 in the aqueous index regime. It was also found that the
resonances could be spectrally tuned over 1000nm at the same spatial region with high coupling efficiency (in excess of
25dB) by altering the polarisation of the light illuminating the device.
Tactile sensors are needed for many emerging robotic and telepresence
applications such as keyhole surgery and robot operation in
unstructured environments.
We have proposed and demonstrated a tactile sensor consisting of a
fibre Bragg grating embedded in a polymer "finger". When the sensor
is placed in contact with a surface and translated tangentially across
it measurements on the changes in the reflectivity spectrum of the
grating provide a measurement of the spatial distribution of forces
perpendicular to the surface and thus, through the elasticity of the
polymer material, to the surface roughness.
Using a sensor fabricated from a Poly Siloxane polymer (Methyl Vinyl
Silicone rubber) spherical cap 50 mm in diameter, 6 mm deep with an
embedded 10 mm long Bragg grating we have characterised the first and
second moment of the grating spectral response when scanned across
triangular and semicircular periodic structures both with a modulation
depth of 1 mm and a period of 2 mm. The results clearly distinguish
the periodicity of the surface structure and the differences between
the two different surface profiles. For the triangular structure a
central wavelength modulation of 4 pm is observed and includes a
fourth harmonic component, the spectral width is modulated by 25 pm.
Although crude in comparison to human senses these results clearly
shown the potential of such a sensor for tactile imaging and we expect
that with further development in optimising both the grating and
polymer "finger" properties a much increased sensitivity and spatial
resolution is achievable.
Long period gratings have been inscribed in standard single mode fibre using a fs laser system, a fusion arc and a UV
laser and a comparative study carried out of their thermal behaviour. The fs laser induced gratings can survive
temperatures in excess of 800 °C, however the inscription process can induce considerable birefringence within the
device. Annealing studies have been carried out showing that below 600 °C, all three grating types show a blue shift in
their room temperature resonance wavelengths following cyclic heating, while above 600 °C, the UV and arc induced
LPGs exhibit a red shift, with the fs LPG showing an even stronger blue shift. High temperature annealing is also shown
to considerably reduce the birefringence induced by the fs inscription process.
We present recent results on experimental micro-fabrication and numerical modeling of advanced photonic devices by means of direct writing by femtosecond laser. Transverse inscription geometry was routinely used to inscribe and modify photonic devices based on waveguiding structures. Typically, standard commercially available fibers were used as a template with a pre-fabricated waveguide. Using a direct, point-by-point inscription by infrared
femtosecond laser, a range of fiber-based photonic devices was fabricated including Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG) and Long Period Gratings (LPG). Waveguides with a core of a couple of microns, periodic structures, and couplers have been also fabricated in planar geometry using the same method.
KEYWORDS: Copper, Cladding, Refractive index, Signal attenuation, Waveguides, Fiber coatings, Metals, Finite element methods, Modeling, Control systems
A set of long period grating devices have been fabricated in photosensitive single mode fibre coated with a series of copper rings (period of 380 μm, 50% duty cycle and length of 4cm). The long period gratings were inscribed with a uniform UV-laser exposure across the entire length of the copper ring patterned coating. The devices ranged in copper thickness from 0.5 μm to 1.5 μm. In addition, a control long period grating was fabricated in the same type of fibre with the same period for comparison. The refractive index and temperature spectral sensitivity of these devices were investigated and it was found that the index and temperature sensitivity is a function of the thickness of the copper rings, as supported by theoretical modelling. Furthermore, the index sensitivity of these devices in the 1.333 index region is greater than the control long period grating. The patterned 0.5 μm coated long period grating gave a sensitivity of Δλ/Δn =-74 nm leading to a resolution of 1.4x10-3 compared to the control which had a sensitivity of Δλ/Δn =
-32 nm with a resolution of 3.2x10-3 in the index region of 1.320 to 1.380 (aqueous solution regime). This demonstrates a two fold increase in the sensitivity. This novel fibre long period grating device shows potential for increasing the resolution of measurements of the index of aqueous solutions.
We demonstrate the use of a series of in-line fibre long period grating curvature sensors on a garment, used to monitor the thoracic and abdominal volumetric tidal movements of a human subject. These results are used to obtain volumetric tidal changes of the human torso showing reasonable agreement with a spirometer used simultaneously to record the volume at the mouth during breathing. The curvature sensors are based upon long period gratings written in a progressive three layered fibre that are insensitive to refractive index changes. The sensor platform consists of the long period grating laid upon a carbon fibre ribbon, which is encapsulated in a low temperature curing silicone rubber.
The fabrication and characterisation of Long Period Gratings in fibre tapers is presented alongside supporting theory. The devices possess a high sensitivity to the index of aqueous solutions due to an observed spectral bifurcation effect.
Long period gratings written into a standard optical fibre were modified by a femtosecond laser, which produced an asymmetric change to the cladding's refractive index resulting in a directional bend sensor.
A fibre long period grating (LPG) is an axially periodic refractive index variation inscribed in the core of a photosensitive single-mode optical fibre by ultra-violet irradiation, which couples light from the core of the fibre into the fibre cladding modes at discrete wavelengths. The index modulation change within the core of a single mode optical fibre is approximately 10-4 and has a period typically between 100-600 μm. The index modulation produces a set of attenuation
bands seen in the transmission spectrum of the optical fibre core. The study of the LPG attenuation bands has yielded many potential applications in the field of sensing through their sensitivities to strain (ε), temperature (T), the refractive index of the surrounding medium (ns) and bending. The LPG's sensitivity to these parameters can manifest itself in two ways. Firstly the central wavelength of the attenuation band can shift in the spectral domain, which will be referred to as spectral sensitivity and secondly a change in the spectral transmission profile of the attenuation band may occur. The spectral shift of the attenuation band arises from the phase matching condition of the LPG1.
Long period gratings (LPGs) were written into a D-shaped optical fibre, which has an elliptical core with a W-shaped refractive index profile. The LPG's attenuation bands were found to be sensitive to the polarisation of the interrogating light with a spectral separation of about 15nm between the two orthogonal polarisation states. In addition, two spectrally overlapping attenuation bands corresponding to orthogonal polarisation states were observed; modelling successfully reproduced this spectral feature. The spectral sensitivity of both orthogonal states was experimentally measured with respect to temperature, surrounding refractive index, and directional bending. These LPG devices produced blue and red wavelength shifts of the stop-bands due to bending in different directions. The measured spectral sensitivities to curvatures, dλ/dR, ranged from -3.56nm m to +6.51nm m. The results obtained with these LPGs suggest that this type of fibre may be useful as a shape/bend sensor. It was also demonstrated that the neighbouring bands could be used to discriminate between temperature and bending and that overlapping orthogonal polarisation attenuation bands can be used to minimise error associated with polarisation.
A series of in-line curvature sensors on a garment are used to monitor the thoracic and abdominal movements of a human during respiration. These results are used to obtain volumetric tidal changes of the human torso showing reasonable agreement with a spirometer used simultaneously to record the volume at the mouth during breathing. The curvature sensors are based upon long period gratings written in a progressive three layered fibre that are insensitive to refractive index changes. The sensor platform consists of the long period grating laid upon a carbon fibre ribbon, which is encapsulated in a low temperature curing silicone rubber. An array of sensors is also used to reconstruct the shape changes of a resuscitation manikin during simulated respiration. The data for reconstruction is obtained by two methods of multiplexing and interrogation: firstly using the transmission spectral profile of the LPG's attenuation bands measured using an optical spectrum analyser; secondly using a derivative spectroscopy technique.
A long period grating (LPG) fabricated in progressive three-layered (PTL) fibre is described. The grating with a period of 391μm, had dual attenuation bands associated with a particular cladding mode. The dual attenuation bands have been experimentally characterised for their spectral sensitivity to bending, which resulted in the highest sensitivity to bending seen for this particular fibre and temperature. The spectral characteristics of the fibre have been modelled giving good agreement to the experimental data as well as showing that the attenuation bands are both associated with the second
order HE/EH2,n cladding mode.
In this paper we review the sensing features of long period Bragg gratings and report on studies aimed at optimizing the sensitivities to various measurands by using different fiber geometries.
An optical-fiber strain-gauge based on Fabry-Perot interferometric principles together with a novel signal processing technique has been developed. Although the originally intended area of usage was aero-engineering, this paper describes its use as an aid to bone fracture fixation. Some trial results are presented and our further development strategies are discussed, in particular, the replacement of dielectric thin mirrors with fiber gratings.
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