Many quantum entanglement generation protocols require phase stabilization between the nodes. For color centers that are embedded in a solid immersion lens (SIL) often a reflection from the SIL’s surface is input to an interferometer where it is mixed with a reference beam. However, the beam reflected beam by the SIL does not travel colinear with the photons that are emitted by the color center, which ultimately leads to a reduction of the interferometer’s signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Additionally, imperfections of the SIL surface introduce aberrations into the reflected light, thereby further reducing the SNR. Through several design-iterations and extensive experience realizing phase stabilization on many different SIL’s we have come to an approach that significantly improves the SNR and enhances the operability of the quantum node. In this paper we report on our optical design and provide useful guidelines for the operation thereof.
Due to its potential for high resolution and three-dimensional imaging, soft x-ray ptychography has received interest for nanometrology applications. We have analyzed the measurement time per unit area when using soft x-ray ptychography for various nanometrology applications including mask inspection and wafer inspection, and are thus able to predict (order of magnitude) throughput figures. Here we show that for a typical measurement system, using a typical sampling strategy, and when aiming for 10-15 nm resolution, it is expected that a wafer-based topology (2.5D) measurement takes approximately 4 minutes per μm2 , and a full three-dimensional measurement takes roughly 6 hours per μm2 . Due to their much higher reflectivity EUV masks can be measured considerably faster; a measurement speed of 0.1 seconds per μm2 is expected. However, such speeds do not allow for full wafer or mask inspection at industrially relevant throughput.
KEYWORDS: Optical design, Actuators, Adaptive optics, Deformable mirrors, Mirrors, High power lasers, Received signal strength, Extreme ultraviolet, Spatial frequencies, Wavefronts
TNO is developing a High Power Adaptive Mirror (HPAM) to be used in the CO2 laser beam path of an Extreme Ultra- Violet (EUV) light source for next-generation lithography. In this paper we report on a developed methodology, and the necessary simulation tools, to assess the performance and associated sensitivities of this deformable mirror. Our analyses show that, given the current limited insight concerning the process window of EUV generation, the HPAM module should have an actuator pitch of ≤ 4 mm. Furthermore we have modelled the sensitivity of performance with respect to dimpling and actuator noise. For example, for a deformable mirror with an actuator pitch of 4 mm, and if the associated performance impact is to be limited to smaller than 5%, the actuator noise should be smaller than 45 nm (rms). Our tools assist in the detailed design process by assessing the performance impact of various design choices, including for example those that affect the shape and spectral content of the influence function.
Traditionally, (dark field) imaging based, particle detection systems rely on identifying a particle based on its irradiance.
It can be shown that for a very smooth wafer with 0.1 nm surface roughness (rms) this approach results in a particle
detection limit larger than 20 nm. By carefully studying the physical mechanism behind this practical limit, we have
developed an alternative interferometric measurement technique that is able to improve upon this limit. This technique is
based on the interferometric amplification of the particle signal, while choosing the phase of the reference beam carefully
as not to amplify the coherent background speckle. Although this allows to detect particles that are 30% smaller,
compared to irradiance based detection this technique poses much more stringent requirements on the wavefront errors
of the imaging optics.
When using a commonly-used quadri-wave lateral shearing interferometer wavefront sensor (QWLSI WFS) for beam size measurements on a high power CO2 laser, artefacts have been observed in the measured irradiance distribution. The grating in the QWLSI WFS not only generates the diffracted first orders that are required for introducing the shear, but also diffracts significantly into higher orders. Consequently, in the few millimeters of free space propagation between the QWLSI WFS grating and its imaging device, the beam size may increase significantly (particularly for infrared wavelengths). This error is typically not accounted for in the subsequent processing of measurement data. To gain insight in this undesirable behavior, physical models of the QWLSI WFS using both complex wave propagation and analytic propagation of the D4sigma beam diameter (and its associated M2) throughout the system have been developed. These models show excellent agreement to experimental data, and indicate that in typical situations the sensor-induced beam size error can easily be 40% or more. Although the QWLSI WFS may not originally be intended for beam size measurements, in most industrial applications cost- and volume limitations will often lead to multiple use of sensor data. To aid in the adequate implementation of a QWLSI WFS for determining beam size, the dependence of the sensor-induced beam size error on various system parameters has been determined (e.g. incoming beam size, grating-to-imager distance, grating geometry, wavelength). Using the presented models and guidelines, the sensor-induced beam size error may be minimized and corrected for.
We present a novel holographic particle image velocimetry (HPIV) system using a reversible holographic material as the recording medium. In HPIV the three-dimensional flow field throughout a volume is detected by adding small tracer particles to a normally transparent medium. By recording the particle distribution twice with a known time shift the displacement and the velocity of the tracer particles can be retrieved. From this information the instantaneous three-dimensional flow field can be found. Our measurement system records double exposure particle holograms in a film based on the photo-chromic protein bacteriorhodopsin (BR). Polarization multiplexing is used to separate the two constituent holograms. We believe it is the first time that this type of multiplexing is used in (particle) velocimetry measurements. By using a polarization sensitive material we are able to simplify our setup and increase the storage capacity of our holographic medium. BR is a fully reversible recording material that does not require any chemical processing. This allows for fast experiments that require minimal operator involvement. A full measurement cycle can typically be completed within several minutes. We present our experimental system in detail and we will discuss how the material and optical properties of BR affect the holographic recording system. We will point out the advantages, disadvantages, and practical issues involved when working with BR.
When large amounts of data are stored in Bacteriorhodopsin (bR), for example with Holographic Particle Image Velocimetry (HPIV), the volatile nature of the medium can be a serious problem. The loss of information has two causes; thermal erasure and photo-induced erasure. The thermal erasure can be reduced by cooling the film. We found that by cooling a film with an optical density of 1.5 (OD570) from 21.2°C to 1.7°C, the thermal erasure time leading to 50% loss of diffraction efficiency was increased from 31 to 185 seconds. The rate of photo-induced erasure does not only depend on the intensity of the reconstruction wave, but also on its wavelength. The influence of the shifted wavelength and the reconstruction intensity on the rate of photo-induced erasure were analysed experimentally and were found to agree with the theory. Reconstructing a hologram with 690 nm can potentially result in a 35 times larger integrated signal to be read from the hologram as when reconstructing with 532 nm.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.