Ultrashort pulse lasers are currently used in a variety of applications, including laser eye surgery. However, laser safety standards do not consider the potential hazard to the eye due to the nonlinear interaction of ultrashort lasers with the ocular tissues. We used a single NIR femtosecond pulse to determine the peak pulse energies that generated a supercontinuum within the eye of anesthetized porcine subjects and resulted in retinal alterations. The results of this study inform the laser safety standards about hazards to the eye due to the supercontinuum generated by nonlinear effects in the aqueous media of the eye.
Lasers with ultrashort pulse durations have become ubiquitous in a variety of applications, including medical procedures such as laser eye surgery. These sources generate high peak powers such that the role of nonlinear optical effects resulting from the interaction of femtosecond pulses with the surrounding media needs to be considered when evaluating their potential hazard to the eye. In the latest version of the ANSI laser safety standards, the safe exposure limits have been relaxed at wavelengths between 1.2 – 1.4 µm because of biological data collected for the nanosecond and millisecond pulse regimes. However, this increase did not consider nonlinear optical effects resulting from the interaction with femtosecond pulses. One manifestation of these nonlinear effects is the generation of broadband light known as supercontinuum. We sent a near infrared (NIR) femtosecond laser with peak energies at or below the energy corresponding to the maximum permissible exposure (MPE) limit listed in laser safety standards into the eye of anesthetized porcine subjects. Exposures were performed with both collimated and converging beams to simulate an eye focused at a far distance and one focused at a near distance, respectively, and have the potential to generate a supercontinuum within the eye. Nominally 1 h and 24 h after exposure, the retina was examined using a fundus camera. The presence or absence of any alteration of the retina was noted. The results of this study inform the laser safety standards committees about potential hazards to the eye due to the supercontinuum generated by nonlinear effects in the aqueous media of the eye.
Recently, pulsed lasers with ultrashort pulse durations have become ubiquitous in a variety of applications, including medical procedures such as laser eye surgery. These sources are capable of generating extremely high peak powers that can cause laser-induced tissue breakdown upon exposure. However, current laser safety standards do not provide exposure limits for wavelengths longer than 1400 nm and pulse durations shorter than 1 ns due to a lack of biological data. Instead, the recommendation is to limit the peak irradiance to the maximum permissible exposure (MPE) limits applicable to 1 ns pulse durations. We applied femtosecond laser pulses of varying energies at 1540 nm and 2000 nm to corneas of anesthetized rabbits. We used slit lamp biomicroscopy and optical coherence tomography to examine the exposure sites and determine the presence or absence of visible lesions 1 h and 24 h post-exposure. The dose-response data correlating the presence or absence of any alteration of the corneal surface to the pulse energy 1 h post-exposure was evaluated using probit analysis to extract the median effective dose (ED50) corresponding to the cornea damage threshold. We compared our results to the MPE limits applicable to 1 ns pulse durations and determined that the current safety standard procedures are not adequate to evaluate small diameter single pulse femtosecond exposures at 1540 nm and 2000 nm. The results of this study contribute to the knowledge base used for setting laser safety standards in the near infrared range for ocular exposure to ultrashort pulses.
Pulsed lasers with ultrashort pulse durations have become ubiquitous in a variety of applications, including laser eye surgery. Therefore, the role of nonlinear optical effects, such as supercontinuum generation, needs to be considered when evaluating their potential hazard. We used a NIR femtosecond laser to generate a supercontinuum within an artificial eye. We recorded the visible spectra of the supercontinuum generated and calculated the energy contained within the visible band. Our results indicate that for certain exposure conditions, the supercontinuum’s energy within the visible range surpasses the maximum permissible energy allowed for visible wavelengths by the laser safety standards.
Neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) lasers are among the most commonly used lasers with a wide variety of applications from biomedicine to manufacturing. The ubiquity of these lasers increases the likelihood of accidental ocular injury resulting in permanent visual impairment. We performed dosimetry studies to determine retinal damage thresholds and hemorrhagic lesions in the porcine eye with Qswitched Nd:YAG lasers. The Yucatan miniature pig model exhibited similarities in ocular anatomy to human eyes. The Nd:YAG laser, tuned to 1064 nm with a pulse width of seven nanoseconds, delivered laser energy to the retina. Retinal imaging modalities including fundus photography, real-time video, confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (cSLO), and spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) provided visualization of retinal morphology at multiple time points. Retinal damage thresholds were grouped into three categories: minimum visible lesion (MVL), contained hemorrhagic lesion (CHL), and vitreal hemorrhagic lesion (VHL). Probit analysis determined the effective dose for 50% probability of damage (ED50) for each lesion category. The threshold to produce a MVL was 0.193 mJ based on 24-hour assessments of the retina. The one-hour hemorrhagic lesion thresholds were 0.408 mJ and 1.52 mJ for CHL and VHL, respectively
The laser-induced retinal injury thresholds for repetitive-pulse exposures to 100-μs-duration pulses at a wavelength of 532 nm have been determined for exposures of up to 1000 pulses in an in vivo model. The ED50 was measured for pulse repetition frequencies of 50 and 1000 Hz. Exposures to collimated beams producing a minimal retinal beam spot and to divergent beams producing a 100-μm-diameter retinal beam spot were considered. The ED50 for a 100-μs exposure was measured to be 12.8 μJ total intraocular energy for a minimal retinal beam spot exposure and 18.1 μJ total intraocular energy for a 100-μm-diameter retinal beam spot. The threshold for exposures to N>1 pulse was found to be the same for both pulse repetition frequencies. The variation of the ED50 with the number of pulses is described well by the probability summation model, in which each pulse is considered an independent event. This is consistent with a threshold-level damage mechanism of microcavitation for single-pulse 100-μs-duration exposures. The data support the maximum permissible exposure levels for repetitive-pulse exposure promulgated in the most recent laser safety guidelines.
An adaptive optics (AO) system was incorporated into a laser retinal exposure setup in order to correct for refractive error and higher-order aberrations of the nonhuman primate (NHP) eye during an in vivo retinal ED50 measurement. Using this system, the ED50 for a 100-ms, 532-nm small spot size exposure was measured to be 1.05 mJ total intraocular energy (TIE), a reduction of 22% from the value measured without aberration correction. The ED50 for a 3.5-ns, 532-nm exposure was measured to be 0.51 µJ TIE, the lowest ED50 reported for a ns-duration exposure. This is a reduction of 37% from the value measured without aberration correction and is a factor of only 2.6 higher than the maximum permissible exposure (MPE) for a 3.5-ns, visible wavelength small spot size exposure. The trend of in vitro measurements using retinal explants suggests that the in vivo ED50 for small spot-size exposures could potentially be one order of magnitude smaller than the previously reported in vivo ED50. Distortion of the incident laser beam by ocular aberrations cannot fully explain the discrepancy between the in vivo measurements with no aberration correction and the in vitro results.
The ability of a laser beam to damage the retina of the eye depends on the accuracy to which the optics of the eye
focuses the beam onto the retina. Data acquired through retinal injury threshold studies indicate that the focus achieved
by the eye of an anesthetized non-human primate (NHP) is worse than theoretical predictions, and therefore the
measured injury threshold will decrease with decreasing retinal irradiance area until the beam diameter at the retina is
less than 10 &mgr;m. However, a number of investigations over a range of wavelengths and exposure durations show that the
incident energy required to produce a retinal injury in a NHP eye does not decrease for retinal irradiance diameters
smaller than ~100 &mgr;m, but reaches a minimum at that diameter and remains nearly constant for smaller diameters. A
possible explanation is that uncompensated aberrations of the eye of the anesthetized NHP are larger than predicted.
Focus is a dynamic process which is purposely defeated while performing measurements of retinal injury thresholds.
Optical wavefront correction systems have become available which have the capability to compensate for ocular
aberrations. This paper will report on an injury threshold experiment which incorporates an adaptive optics system to
compensate for the aberrations of a NHP eye during exposure to a collimated laser beam, therefore producing a near
diffraction limited beam spot on the retina.
The impact of the small-scale ocular motion that occurs during steady gaze on the retinal thermal damage threshold for long-duration laser exposures is investigated. Exposure durations from 100 msec to 50 sec are considered. Experimentally recorded eye movement data are input into a numerical simulation to calculate the increase in temperature experienced by the retina during an exposure to a continuous wave laser. Calculations are for a small retinal beam spot. An Arrhenius damage integral is used to estimate the thermal damage threshold. The impact of the ocular movements is expressed as a relief factor , defined as the ratio of the theoretical damage threshold in the presence of ocular motion to the threshold calculated assuming no eye motion. The relief factor is found to be 1.05 for a 100-msec exposure, increasing to 1.3 for a 50-sec exposure. The relief factor is described well by the equation =1.120.037 for exposure durations in the range 100 msec to 50 sec.
In an awake and alert individual, intrinsic eye movements will cause a laser beam spot to move about an extended area of the retina during a long-duration exposure. A single point on the retina will be heated when directly exposed to the laser beam, but will cool when the beam spot is moved to another location. The thermal damage threshold is therefore expected to be larger than the value estimated in standard damage models, in which the eye is treated as a stationary receiver. Experimentally measured eye movement data, recorded during deliberate fixation, were input into a computer program to calculate the increase in temperature occurring in the retina during a long-duration exposure to a continuous wave laser. A simple Arrhenius damage integral model was used to estimate the thermal damage thresholds, which were then compared to the threshold estimated for a stationary eye. The eye movements are found to increase the damage threshold by 18% for 2 second exposures, and 38% for 50 second exposures.
A computer simulation called RHME (Retinal Heating in Moving Eye) is developed to simulate the heating pattern that occurs in the retina during a long-duration exposure to a continuous wave laser beam. The simulation takes into account eye movements that occur during a deliberate fixation. Due to the rapid (millisecond) thermal time scale for heating and cooling, only the area of the retina directly exposed to the laser sustains an increased temperature. Once the laser spot is removed from a particular location of the retina (because of eye movements) that location quickly cools. Points of the retina will therefore have a complex thermal history during a long-duration exposure. Simulation results for a minimal retinal spot size indicate that subjects staring at a helium-neon laser (= 632.8 nm) beam producing the small-source maximum permissible exposure (MPE) level corneal irradiance of 1 mW cm–2 (>10-s exposure) will experience a maximum although transient temperature increase in the retina of less than 2°C during a 50-s fixation trial. The large increase in the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) and ANSI Z136.1 safety limits for a long-duration small-source exposure to visible continuous wave lasers that was adopted in 2000 therefore appears appropriate.
Purpose: To evaluate long term deficits in human color discrimination induced by accidental laser macular damage and assess potential for recovery of color vision deficits.
Methods: Nine laser accident cases (Q-switched Neodymium) presenting initially with confined or vitreous macular hemorrhage were evaluated with the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue test within 2 days to 3 months post exposure. Both total as well as partial errors in the blue/yellow (B/Y) and red/green (R/G) regions were assessed. Independent assessment of axis orientation and complexity were obtained via a Fourier series expansion of error scores. Comparisons of both total and partial B/Y and R/G errors were made with age matched normal subjects, idiopathic and juvenile onset macular holes. Confocal Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy and Optical Coherence Tomography characterized the presence of retinal traction, intraretinal scar, macular thickness and macular hole formation.
Results: Comparison of exposed and non-exposed age matched individuals were significant (P<.001) for both total and partial errors. In four cases where macular injury ranged from mild scar to macular hole, color discrimination errors achieved normal levels in 1 to 12 months post exposure. A mild tritan axis, dominant B/Y ("blue/yellow") errors, and retinal traction were observed in a macular hole case. At 12 months post exposure, traction about the hole disappeared, and total and partial errors were normal. Where damage involved a greater degree of scarring, retinal traction and multiple injury sites, long term recovery of total and partial error recovery was retarded with complex axis makeup. Single exposures in the paramacula produced tritan axes, while multiple exposures within and external to the macula increased total and partial R/G ("red/green") error scores. Total errors increased when paramacular hole enlargement induced macular traction. Such hole formation produced significant increases in total errors, complex axis formation and increased amplitude in higher Fourier error expansion components.
Conclusion: Color discrimination losses reflect the distribution of different cone systems in and about the macula and their selective loss. When secondary damage is minimal, color discrimination deficits recover within 12 months post exposure. When macular scarring and retinal traction are severe, recovery is significantly retarded. Laser induced macular holes may affect color discrimination less when retinal scar and traction are small but may become equivalent with that of idiopathic and juvenile species when scar and traction are severe.
During long-term viewing of a continuous light source, head and eye movements affect the distribution of energy deposited in the retina. Previous studies by this group of eye movements during a fixation task were used in revising the safety limits for long term viewing ofsuch sources. These studies have been continued to determine the effect of source brightness on the nature of fixational eye movements VoIuntees fixated for up to 50 seconds on a HeNe laser (? 632 8 nm) masked by a 25 xm diameter aperture to produce a small source subtending OO3 mrad in the visual field. The source was attenuated to yield cornea! irradiance values m the range 0 6 pW/cm2 to 6 tW/cm2 Eye movements were recorded using a Dual Purkmje Image Eye Tracker The hypothesis was that eye movements become more erratic as source intensity is increased toward levels that induce an aversion response This would add a safety maigin when viewing a bright source, as the energy deposited in the retina would be spread over a larger area However, the data do not exhibit any change in the tightness of fixation with increasing source intensity. The area covered by the eye movements during successive 250 ms time slices exhibits a relatively flat trend during the course ofthe 50 second fixation task for all source intensities considered in this study, suggesting that there was no loss of ability to fixate nor drive to an aversion response during the course ofthe trials.
This paper presents an experimental study of the effects of varied magnetic bias, AC magnetic field amplitude and frequency on the characteristics of hysteresis loops produced in a magnetostrictive transducer. The study uses a magnetostrictive transducer designed at Iowa State University that utilizes an 11.5 cm (4.54 in) long by 1.27 cm (0.5 in) diameter cylindrical Terfenol-D rod. This transducer allows controlled variation of the following operating conditions: mechanical prestress, magnitude and frequency of AC magnetic field, and magnetic bias. By performing extensive experimental tests, material property trends can be developed for use in the optimization of transducer design parameters for different applications. For the results presented, the magnetic bias, the AC magnetic field amplitude, and the frequency of excitation were independently varied while temperature, mass load and prestress were kept constant. The minor hysteresis loops of the strain versus applied magnetic field, flux density versus applied magnetic field, and magnetization versus applied magnetic field are presented and compared. Material property trends identified from the minor loops are presented for the axial strain coefficient, permeability, susceptibility, and energy losses.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.