Exoplanet imaging missions utilizing an external occulter (starshade) for starlight suppression require precise alignment between the telescope and starshade, necessitating maintenance of the starshade orbit during observations. Differential lateral acceleration between the two spacecraft serves as a proxy for fuel use and number of required thruster firings, which may interrupt the observation. Comparison against results from high fidelity simulations of stationkeeping validates the use of this easy-to-compute proxy. Among starshade positions constrained to the surface of a sphere centered about the telescope, minima of differential lateral acceleration lie on a great circle and its corresponding poles. We present a closed expression for telescope to star vectors requiring minimal stationkeeping for observation from a telescope at an arbitrary position. This proxy metric along with analytical knowledge of optimal observations facilitates computationally efficient design of exoplanet imaging missions employing a starshade.
We present an analytical model for the desired kinematics of the starshade-telescope relative motion during exoplanet direct imaging observations. We combine this model with an existing deadbanding strategy published by the NASA JPL S5 Team to define a dynamics framework for deadbanding simulations. Global results of these simulations show that the fuel usage and the number of observation interruptions vary as a function of the target star ecliptic coordinates and time, meaning there exist optimal times to observe particular targets. We combine these results with the telescope pointing constraints due to the relative position of the Sun and other bright solar system objects. We show that optimally scheduling an observation could result in up to 30 more min of integration time and 26 fewer interruptions per observation, improvements of almost 300% in some cases. We also show how phasing the start time of the telescope on its halo orbit is paramount for ensuring optimal observations, providing up to 68 additional min and 31 fewer interruptions per observation. Choosing an optimal halo phasing can also increase, for some near-ecliptic target stars, the fraction of a year that the target is observable from a few percent to more than 30%.
We present an algorithm, effective over a broad range of planet populations and instruments, for optimizing integration times of an exoplanet direct imaging observation schedule, to maximize the number of unique exoplanet detections under realistic mission constraints. Our planning process uses “completeness” as a reward metric and the nonlinear combination of optimal integration time per target and constant overhead time per target as a cost metric constrained by a total mission time. We validate our planned target list and integration times for a specific telescope by running a Monte Carlo of full mission simulations using EXOSIMS, a code base for simulating telescope survey missions. These simulations encapsulate dynamic details such as time-varying local zodiacal light for each star, planet keep-out regions, exoplanet positions, and strict enforcement of observatory use over time. We test our methods on the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) coronagraphic instrument (CGI). We find that planet, Sun, and solar panel keep-out regions limit some target per-annum visibility to <28 % and that the mean local zodiacal light flux for optimally scheduled observations is 22.79 mag arcsec − 2. Both these values are more pessimistic than previous approximations and impact the simulated mission yield. We find that the WFIRST CGI detects 5.48 ± 0.17 and 16.26 ± 0.51 exoplanets, on average, when observing two different planet populations based on Kepler Q1-Q6 data and the full Kepler data release, respectively. Optimizing our planned observations using completeness derived from the more pessimistic planet population (in terms of overall planet occurrence rates) results in a more robust yield than optimization based on the more optimistic planet population. We also find optimization based on the more pessimistic population results in more small planet detections than optimization with the more optimistic population.
The HabEx and LUVOIR mission concepts aim to directly image and spectrally characterize potentially habitable exoplanets. We use EXOSIMS to simulate design reference missions with observation scheduling to determine yield of exoplanets detected, spectrally characterized, and orbits determined. EXOSIMS performs dynamically responsive scheduling with realistic mission observing constraints on Monte Carlo universes of synthetic planets around known nearby stars. We use identical astrophysical inputs and the individual observing scenarios of each concept to evaluate a common comparison of the detection and spectral characterization yields of HabEx and LUVOIR. HabEx is evaluated for the 4m hybrid starshade and coronagraph architecture, the 4m coronagraph only architecture, and the 3.2 m starshade only architecture. LUVOIR is evaluated for the 15 m architecture presented in their interim report and the 9 m architecture of their final report. Yield analysis shows that both concepts can directly image and spectrally characterize earth-like planets in the habitable zone and that each concept has complementary strengths.
Space observatories have many advantages over ground-based telescopes. However, constructing and launching large space telescopes remains a significant challenge. A solution to this problem lies in autonomous, in-space assembly. To gain benefits from efficiencies of scale and mass production, a modular telescope assembled in space can be constructed from identical mirror segments. These identical segments must then be deformed to an appropriate shape in space. This work examines the optical feasibility of such a project, using a 31 meter Ritchey- Chrétien telescope composed of about 1,000 1-m mirrors as a case study. In particular, this work examines the shape of the telescope optics through Zernike decomposition and computes the physical optics propagation of such a system to analyze the resultant PSF with simulation in Zemax OpticStudio.
An exoplanet direct imaging mission using an external occulter for starlight suppression could potentially achieve higher contrasts and throughputs than an equivalently sized telescope with an internal coronagraph. We consider a formation flying mission where the starshade must station-keep with a telescope, assumed to be on a halo orbit about the Sun-Earth L2 point, during observations and slew between observations as the telescope re-orients to target the next star. We use a parameterization of the slew fuel cost calculation based on interpolation of exact solutions of boundary value problem in the circular restricted three body formalism. Time constraints are imposed based on when stars are observable due to the motion of bright sources in the solar system, integration times, and mission lifetime constraints. Finally, we present a comprehensive cost function incorporating star completeness values as a reward heuristic and retargeting fuel costs to sequentially select the next best star to observe. Ensembles of simulations are conducted for different selection schemes; for a 3 year mission, taking two steps of the linear cost function produces the most unique detections with an average of 7.08± 2.55.
The Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) mission, scheduled for launch in the mid-2020s will perform exoplanet science via both direct imaging and a microlensing survey. An internal coronagraph is planned to perform starlight suppression for exoplanet imaging, but an external starshade could be used to achieve the required high contrasts with potentially higher throughput. This approach would require a separately-launched occulter spacecraft to be positioned at exact distances from the telescope along the line of sight to a target star system. We present a detailed study to quantify the Δv requirements and feasibility of deploying this additional spacecraft as a means of exoplanet imaging. The primary focus of this study is the fuel use of the occulter while repositioning between targets. Based on its design, the occulter is given an offset distance from the nominal WFIRST halo orbit. Target star systems and look vectors are generated using Exoplanet Open-Source Imaging Simulator (EXOSIMS); a boundary value problem is then solved between successive targets. On average, 50 observations are achievable with randomly selected targets given a 30-day transfer time. Individual trajectories can be optimized for transfer time as well as fuel usage to be used in mission scheduling. Minimizing transfer time reduces the total mission time by up to 4.5 times in some simulations before expending the entire fuel budget. Minimizing Δv can generate starshade missions that achieve over 100 unique observations within the designated mission lifetime of WFIRST.
The zodiacal light caused by interplanetary dust grains is the second-most luminous source in the solar system. The dust grains coalesce into structures reminiscent of early solar system formation; their composition has been predicted through simulations and some edge-on observations but better data is required to validate them. Scattered light from these dust grains presents challenges to exoplanet imaging missions: resolution of their stellar environment is hindered by exozodiacal emissions and therefore sets the size and scope of these imaging missions. Understanding the composition of this interplanetary dust in our solar system requires an imaging mission from a vantage point above the ecliptic plane. The high surface brightness of the zodiacal light requires only a small aperture with moderate sensitivity; therefore a 3cm camera is enough to meet the science goals of the mission at an orbital height of 0.1AU above the ecliptic. A 6U CubeSat is the target mass for this mission which will be a secondary payload detaching from an existing interplanetary mission. Planetary flybys are utilized to produce most of the plane change Δv; deep space corrective maneuvers are implemented to optimize each planetary flyby. We developed an algorithm which determines the minimum Δv required to place the CubeSat on a transfer orbit to a planet’s sphere of influence and maximizes the resultant orbital height with respect to the ecliptic plane. The satellite could reach an orbital height of 0.22 AU with an Earth gravity assist in late 2024 by boarding the Europa Clipper mission.
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