Digital tomosynthesis (DTS) has been used in diagnosis and radiation therapy due to its performance and benefits. DTS is able to provide 3D images with good depth resolution comparing to conventional radiography and reduce radiation dose comparing to computed tomography (CT). However, DTS scans with limited scan angles and a few projections lead to the insufficiency in data acquisition. Such a drawback causes the alteration of image characteristics and the distortion of image quality in DTS imaging. These issues can be magnified by the geometric variations of the DTS systems and the imaging strategies. In this study, the effect of geometric variations on image characteristics was evaluated by the DTS systems simulated with various X-ray source scan trajectories and angles. The DTS images were analyzed in terms of noise property, contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), and spatial resolution. The results showed that the quality of DTS images was highly dependent on X-ray source scan trajectories and angles, and the characteristics of DTS images varied according to their acquisition geometries. Therefore, the geometries and strategies for DTS imaging should be appropriately determined for optimizing their systems and applications.
KEYWORDS: Denoising, Modulation transfer functions, Spatial resolution, Mammography, Image quality, Digital mammography, Monte Carlo methods, Image processing
With an increase of breast cancer patients, dual-energy mammographic techniques have been advanced for improving diagnostic accuracy. In general, conventional dual-energy techniques increase radiation dose because the techniques are based on double exposures. Dual-energy techniques with photon-counting detectors (PCDs) can be implemented by using a single exposure. However, the images obtained from the dual-energy techniques with the PCDs suffer from statistical noise because the dual-energy measurements were performed with a single exposure, causing a lack of the number of effective photons. Thus, the material decomposition accuracy is decreased, and the image quality is distorted. In this study, denoising and deblurring techniques were iteratively applied to a dual-energy mammographic technique based on a PCD, and we evaluated RMSE, noise, and CNR for the quantitative analysis of material decomposition. The results showed that the RMSE value was about 0.23 times lower for the decomposed images with the denoising and deblurring techniques than that without the denoising and deblurring techniques. The noise and CNR of the decomposed images were averagely decreased and increased by factors of 0.23 and 4.17, respectively, through the denoising and deblurring techniques. But, the iterative application of the debelurring technique slightly increased the RMSE and noise. Therefore, it is considered that the material decomposition accuracy and image quality can be improved by applying the denoising and deblurring techniques with the appropriate iterations.
Chest digital tomosynthesis (CDT) is a new 3D imaging technique that can be expected to improve the detection of subtle lung disease over conventional chest radiography. Algorithm development for CDT system is challenging in that a limited number of low-dose projections are acquired over a limited angular range. To confirm the feasibility of algebraic reconstruction technique (ART) method under variations in key imaging parameters, quality metrics were conducted using LUNGMAN phantom included grand-glass opacity (GGO) tumor. Reconstructed images were acquired from the total 41 projection images over a total angular range of ±20°. We evaluated contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) and artifacts spread function (ASF) to investigate the effect of reconstruction parameters such as number of iterations, relaxation parameter and initial guess on image quality. We found that proper value of ART relaxation parameter could improve image quality from the same projection. In this study, proper value of relaxation parameters for zero-image (ZI) and back-projection (BP) initial guesses were 0.4 and 0.6, respectively. Also, the maximum CNR values and the minimum full width at half maximum (FWHM) of ASF were acquired in the reconstructed images after 20 iterations and 3 iterations, respectively. According to the results, BP initial guess for ART method could provide better image quality than ZI initial guess. In conclusion, ART method with proper reconstruction parameters could improve image quality due to the limited angular range in CDT system.
Algorithmic system modeling which includes a geometric motion of source, phantom, and detector for reconstructing the tomographic images is well-known in medical imaging field. Especially in a digital X-ray tomosynthesis system (DTS) which scans an object in limited angle, not a full 360-degree, an accurate system modeling should be derived to reconstruct an excellent cross sectional image. In this study, we analytically modeled a ray-driven forward projector and a pixel-driven back-projector. We firstly acquired forward projected images of a computerized Shepp-Logan phantom over an ±20° angular range using ray-driven projector. On top of that, we reconstructed the analytically scanned phantom using pixel-driven back-projector based on a conventional filtered back-projection (FBP) in tomosynthesis. We evaluated root-mean-square errors (RMSEs) and horizontal profiles of normalized pixel values in the reconstructed axial cross sectional images. The results indicated that pixel-driven back-projector combined with ray-driven projector showed low RMSEs of 0.25, 0.49, 0.80, 1.46, and 0.94 among five different regions-of-interests (ROIs). Illustrated horizontal profiles of normalized pixel values between the referenced phantom and reconstructed object showed similar values, which demonstrated that both ray- and pixel-driven projector/back-projector could be utilized in linear motion DTS.
Chest digital tomosynthesis (CDT) system has recently been introduced and studied. This system offers the potential to be a substantial improvement over conventional chest radiography for the lung nodule detection and reduces the radiation dose with limited angles. PC-based Monte Carlo program (PCXMC) simulation toolkit (STUK, Helsinki, Finland) is widely used to evaluate radiation dose in CDT system. However, this toolkit has two significant limits. Although PCXMC is not possible to describe a model for every individual patient and does not describe the accurate X-ray beam spectrum, Geant4 Application for Tomographic Emission (GATE) simulation describes the various size of phantom for individual patient and proper X-ray spectrum. However, few studies have been conducted to evaluate effective dose in CDT system with the Monte Carlo simulation toolkit using GATE.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate effective dose in virtual infant chest phantom of posterior-anterior (PA) view in CDT system using GATE simulation. We obtained the effective dose at different tube angles by applying dose actor function in GATE simulation which was commonly used to obtain the medical radiation dosimetry. The results indicated that GATE simulation was useful to estimate distribution of absorbed dose. Consequently, we obtained the acceptable distribution of effective dose at each projection. These results indicated that GATE simulation can be alternative method of calculating effective dose in CDT applications.
Chest digital tomosynthesis (CDT) is a recently introduced new imaging modality for better detection of high- and smallcontrast lung nodules compared to conventional X-ray radiography. In CDT system, several projection views need to be acquired with limited angular range. The acquisition of insufficient number of projection data can degrade the reconstructed image quality. This image degradation easily affected by acquisition parameters such as angular dose distribution, number of projection views and reconstruction algorithm. To investigate the imaging characteristics, we evaluated the impact of the angular dose distribution on image quality by simulation studies with Geant4 Application for Tomographic Emission (GATE). We designed the different angular dose distribution conditions. The results showed that the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) improves when exposed the higher dose at central projection views than peripheral views. While it was found that increasing angular dose distribution at central views improved lung nodule detectability, although both peripheral regions slightly suffer from image noise due to low dose distribution. The improvements of CNR by using proposed image acquisition technique suggest possible directions for further improvement of CDT system for lung nodule detection with high quality imaging capabilities.
Image evaluation is necessary in digital radiography (DR) which is widely used in medical imaging. Among parameters of image evaluation, modulation transfer function (MTF) is the important factor in the field of medical imaging and necessary to obtain detective quantum efficiency (DQE) which represents overall performance of the detector signal-to-noise ratio. However, the accurate measurement of MTF is still not easy because of geometric effect, electric noise, quantum noise, and truncation error. Therefore, in order to improve accuracy of MTF, four experimental methods were tested in this study such as changing the tube current, applying smoothing method in edge spread function (ESF), adjusting line spread function (LSF) range, and changing tube angle. Our results showed that MTF’s fluctuation was decreased by high tube current and smoothing method. However, tube current should not exceed detector saturation and smoothing in ESF causes a distortion in ESF and MTF. In addition, decreasing LSF range diminished fluctuation and the number of sampling in MTF and high tube angle generates degradation in MTF. Based on these results, excessively low tube current and the smoothing method should be avoided. Also, optimal range of LSF considering reduction of fluctuation and the number of sampling in MTF was necessary and precise tube angle is essential to obtain an accurate MTF. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that accurate MTF can be acquired.
KEYWORDS: Modulators, Dual energy imaging, Aluminum, Modulation, Monte Carlo methods, Polymethylmethacrylate, Radiography, Image quality, X-rays, Imaging systems
In conventional digital radiography (DR) using a dual energy subtraction technique, a significant fraction of the detected
photons are scattered within the body, resulting in the scatter component. Scattered radiation can significantly deteriorate
image quality in diagnostic X-ray imaging systems. Various methods of scatter correction, including both measurement and
non-measurement-based methods have been proposed in the past. Both methods can reduce scatter artifacts in
images. However, non-measurement-based methods require a homogeneous object and have insufficient scatter
component correction. Therefore, we employed a measurement-based method to correct for the scatter component of
inhomogeneous objects from dual energy DR (DEDR) images. We performed a simulation study using a Monte Carlo
simulation with a primary modulator, which is a measurement-based method for the DEDR system. The primary
modulator, which has a checkerboard pattern, was used to modulate primary radiation. Cylindrical phantoms of variable
size were used to quantify imaging performance. For scatter estimation, we used Discrete Fourier Transform filtering.
The primary modulation method was evaluated using a cylindrical phantom in the DEDR system. The scatter
components were accurately removed using a primary modulator. When the results acquired with scatter correction and
without correction were compared, the average contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) with the correction was 1.35 times higher
than that obtained without correction, and the average root mean square error (RMSE) with the correction was 38.00%
better than that without correction. In the subtraction study, the average CNR with correction was 2.04 (aluminum
subtraction) and 1.38 (polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) subtraction) times higher than that obtained without the
correction. The analysis demonstrated the accuracy of scatter correction and the improvement of image quality using a
primary modulator and showed the feasibility of introducing the primary modulation technique into dual energy
subtraction. Therefore, we suggest that the scatter correction method with a primary modulator is useful for the DEDR
system.
In digital subtraction mammography where subtracts the one image (with contrast medium) from the other (anatomical
background) for observing the tumor structure, tumors which include more blood vessels than normal tissue could be
distinguished through the enhancement of contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR). In order to improve CNR, we adopted
projection-based energy weighting for iodine solutions with four different concentrations embedded in a breast phantom
(50% adipose and 50% glandular tissues). In this study, a Monte Carlo simulation was used to simulate a 40 mm
thickness breast phantom, which has 15 and 30 mg/cm3 iodine solutions with two different thicknesses, and an energy resolving photon-counting system. The input energy spectrum was simulated in a range of 20 to 45 keV in order to reject electronic noise and include k-edge energy of iodine (33.2 keV). The results showed that the projection-based energy
weighting improved the CNR by factors of 1.05-1.86 compared to the conventional integrating images. Consequently,
the CNR of images from the digital subtraction mammography could be improved by the projection-based energy
weighting with photon-counting detectors.
KEYWORDS: Collimators, Semiconductors, Single photon emission computed tomography, Spatial resolution, Modulation transfer functions, Sensors, Gamma radiation, Monte Carlo methods, Silicon, Point spread functions
In previous study, to improve both sensitivity and spatial resolution, we recommended to use a pixelated parallel-hole
collimator with equal hole and pixel sizes based on CdTe pixelated semiconductor SPECT system. However, the tradeoff
between sensitivity and spatial resolution is needed before determination of pixelated parallel-hole collimator
geometric designs. The detective quantum efficiency (DQE) is a concept which takes both the sensitivity and spatial
resolution into account to provide an overall measure and may be better suited for optimization. The purpose of this
study was to optimize and evaluate the above-mentioned collimators using DQE to determine the best image
performance of CdTe pixelated semiconductor SPECT system. We conducted a simulation study using a Geant4
Application for Tomographic Emission (GATE) simulation. To evaluate the DQE from modulation transfer function
(MTF) and sensitivity, the collimator septal heights were varied from 15 to 30 mm in 5 mm increments at step and
source-to-collimator distances were 4, 5, 6, and 7 cm. According to the results, the DQE decreased with increasing
source-to-collimator distance and septal height. We have presented the evaluation results of pixelated parallel-hole
collimators with various geometric designs. In conclusion, we successfully optimized the pixelated parallel-hole
collimator, and based on our results, we recommended using lower septal height with smaller source-to-collimator
distance with CdTe pixelated semiconductor SPECT system.
The photon counting detector using cadmium telluride (CdTe) or cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a promising imaging modality and provides many benefits compared to conventional scintillation detectors. When using the pinhole
collimator with the photon counting detector, we are able to improve both spatial resolution and sensitivity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the photon counting and conventional scintillation detectors in a pinhole single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) system. We designed five pinhole SPECT systems of two types. One was the
CdTe photon counting detector, and the other was the conventional NaI(Tl) scintillation detector. We conducted simulation studies and evaluated the imaging performance. The results showed that the spatial resolution of CdTe photon counting detector was 0.38 mm and the sensitivity in this detector was 1.40 times higher than conventional NaI(Tl)
scintillation detector in the same detector thickness condition. Also, the average scatter fraction of the CdTe photon counting and the conventional NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors were 1.93% and 2.44%, respectively. In conclusion, we
successfully evaluated various pinhole SPECT systems for small animal imaging.
Photon counting detector based on semiconductor materials is a promising imaging modality and provides many benefits
for x-ray imaging compared with conventional detectors. This detector is able to measure the x-ray photon energy
deposited by each event and provide the x-ray spectrum formed by detected photon. Recently, photon counting detectors
have been developed for x-ray imaging. However, there has not been done many works for developing the novel x-ray
imaging techniques and evaluating the image quality in x-ray system based on photon counting detectors. In this study,
we simulated computed tomography (CT) images using projection-based and image-based energy weighting techniques
and evaluate the effect of energy weighting in CT images. We designed the x-ray CT system equipped with cadmium
telluride (CdTe) detector operating in the photon counting mode using Geant4 Application for Tomographic Emission
(GATE) simulation. A micro focus X-ray source was modeled to reduce the flux of photons and minimize the spectral
distortion. The phantom had a cylindrical shape of 30 mm diameter and consisted of ploymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)
which includes the blood (1.06 g/cm3), iodine, and gadolinium (50 mg/cm3). The reconstructed images of phantom were
acquired with projection-based and image-based energy weighting techniques. To evaluate the image quality, the
contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) is calculated as a function of the number of energy-bins. The CNR of both images acquired
with energy weighting techniques were improved compared with those of integrating and counting images and increased
as a function of the number of energy-bins. When the number of energy-bins was increased, the CNR in the image-based
energy weighting image is higher than the projection-based energy weighting image. The results of this study show that
the energy weighting techniques based on the photon counting detector can improve the image quality and the number of
energy-bins used for generating the image is important.
The cadmium telluride (CdTe)-based photon-counting detector is limited in capability under a high x-ray flux. A photon
rejecter composed of aluminum, for example, can reduce this limitation by modulating the incident number of photons.
In addition to this function, the optimal photon rejecter can separates electronic noise. The aim of this work was to
optimize the photon rejecter for high quality image acquisition by removing electronic noise from the actual pulse signal.
We acquired data with various types of photon rejecter materials composed of aluminum (Al) and iodine at three
different tube voltages (50, 70 and 90 kVp). A phantom composed of high atomic number materials was imaged to
evaluate the efficiency of the photon rejecter. Photon rejecters composed of 1-mm Al, 10-mm Al, and a combination of
10-mm Al and iodine provided optimum capability at 50, 70 and 90 kVp, respectively. Each optimal combination of
photon rejecter material and voltage effectively separated electronic noise from the actual pulse signal and gave highest
contrast for materials on the image. These optimized types of photon rejecter can effectively discriminate electronic
noise and improve image quality according to the different tube voltages.
Photon counting detectors using cadmium telluride (CdTe) or cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) have benefits compared to
conventional scintillation detectors. Recently, many studies have been conducted using these materials to improve the
sensitivity and spatial resolution of photon counting detectors. The purpose of this study was to optimize the design of a
collimator to achieve excellent resolution and high sensitivity on the gamma camera system based on the CdTe detector.
We performed a simulation study of the PID 350 (Ajat Oy Ltd., Finland) CdTe detector using the Geant4 Application for
Tomographic Emission (GATE) simulation. This detector consists of small pixels (0.35 × 0.35 mm2). We designed two
parallel-hole collimators with different shapes and verified their usefulness. One was the proposed pixelated parallel-hole
collimator in which the hole size and pixel size are the same, and the other was the hexagonal parallel-hole collimator,
which has a hole size similar to that of the pixelated parallel-hole collimator. We evaluated the sensitivity, spatial
resolution, and contrast resolution to determine which parallel-hole collimator was best on the PID 350 CdTe detector.
The sensitivity was 22.65% higher for the pixelated parallel-hole collimator than for the hexagonal parallel-hole
collimator. Also, the pixelated parallel-hole collimator provided 10.7% better spatial resolution than the hexagonal
parallel-hole collimator and contrast resolution was improved by 8.93%. In conclusion, we successfully established a
high resolution gamma camera system with a pixelated parallel-hole collimator.
SPECT system with a co-registered x-ray CT image allows the fusion of functional information and morphologic
information. In this study, a pinhole collimator SPECT system sharing a CdTe detector with a CT was designed. Geant4
application for tomographic emission (GATE) v.6 was used for the design simulation. Sensitivity and spatial resolution
were measured to evaluate the system characteristics on an ideal condition. A pinhole collimator was designed to obtain
high spatial resolution and better sensitivity. The diameter of the collimator was 0.5 mm, and the distance from the center
of the field of view (CFOV) was set to 25 mm. The source to detector distance was set to 69 mm. The acquisition time of
each projection was 40 seconds, and 60 projections were obtained for tomographic image acquisition. The reconstruction
was performed using ordered subset expectation maximization (OS-EM) algorithms. The total system sensitivity was
measured in cps/kBq, and the spatial resolution was defined by the full width at half maximum (FWHM) from the point
spread function (PSF) of the point source image. Modulation transfer function (MTF) was also measured from the PSF.
The spatial resolution of the system calculated from the FWHM of Gaussian fitted PSF curve was 0.48 mm, and the
sensitivity of the system measured 0.354 cps/kBq from a Tc-99m point source. A phantom study was performed to verify
the dual modality system design. The system will be built as designed, and it can be applied for the pre-clinical imaging
system.
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