The combinations of a 60 fps kV x-ray flat panel imager, a 19 focal spot kV x-ray tube enabled by a steered electron beam, plus SART or SIRT sliding reconstruction via GPUs, allow real time 6 fps 3D-rendered digital tomosynthesis tracking of the respiratory motion of lung cancer lesions. The tube consists of a “U” shaped vacuum chamber with 19 tungsten anodes, spread uniformly over 3 sides of a 30 cm x 30 cm square, each attached to a cylindrical copper heat sink cooled by flowing water. The beam from an electron gun was steered and focused onto each of the 19 anodes in a predetermined sequence by a series of dipole, quadrupole and solenoid magnets. The imager consists of 0.194 mm pixels laid out in 1576 rows by 2048 columns, binned 4x4 to achieve 60 fps projection image operation with 16 bits dynamic range. These are intended for application with free breathing patients during ordinary linac C-arm radiotherapy with modest modifications to typical system hardware or to standard clinical treatment delivery protocols. The sliding digital tomosynthesis reconstruction is completed after every 10 projection images acquired at 60 fps, but using the last 19 such projection images for each such reconstruction at less than 8 mAs exposure per 3D rendered frame. Comparisons, to “ground truth” optical imaging and to diagnostic 4D CT (10 phase) images, are being used to determine the accuracy and limitations of the various versions of this new “19 projection image x-ray tomosynthesis fluorooscopy” motion tracking technique.
KEYWORDS: Breast, Mammography, Digital mammography, Monte Carlo methods, Sensors, Image quality, Signal detection, Signal attenuation, Image restoration, Point spread functions
Scattered radiation remains one of the primary challenges for digital mammography, resulting in decreased image contrast and visualization of key features. While anti-scatter grids are commonly used to reduce scattered radiation in digital mammography, they are an incomplete solution that can add radiation dose, cost, and complexity. Instead, a software-based scatter correction method utilizing asymmetric scatter kernels is developed and evaluated in this work, which improves upon conventional symmetric kernels by adapting to local variations in object thickness and attenuation that result from the heterogeneous nature of breast tissue. This fast adaptive scatter kernel superposition (fASKS) method was applied to mammography by generating scatter kernels specific to the object size, x-ray energy, and system geometry of the projection data. The method was first validated with Monte Carlo simulation of a statistically-defined digital breast phantom, which was followed by initial validation on phantom studies conducted on a clinical mammography system. Results from the Monte Carlo simulation demonstrate excellent agreement between the estimated and true scatter signal, resulting in accurate scatter correction and recovery of 87% of the image contrast originally lost to scatter. Additionally, the asymmetric kernel provided more accurate scatter correction than the conventional symmetric kernel, especially at the edge of the breast. Results from the phantom studies on a clinical system further validate the ability of the asymmetric kernel correction method to accurately subtract the scatter signal and improve image quality. In conclusion, software-based scatter correction for mammography is a promising alternative to hardware-based approaches such as anti-scatter grids.
A unique 64-row flat panel (FP) detector has been developed for sub-second multidetector-row CT (MDCT). The intent
was to explore the image quality achievable with relatively inexpensive amorphous silicon (a-Si) compared to existing
diagnostic scanners with discrete crystalline diode detectors. The FP MDCT system is a bench-top design that consists
of three FP modules. Each module uses a 30 cm x 3.3 cm a-Si array with 576 x 64 photodiodes. The photodiodes are
0.52 mm x 0.52 mm, which allows for about twice the spatial resolution of most commercial MDCT scanners. The
modules are arranged in an overlapping geometry, which is sufficient to provide a full-fan 48 cm diameter scan. Scans
were obtained with various detachable scintillators, e.g. ceramic Gd2O2S, particle-in-binder Gd2O2S:Tb and columnar
CsI:Tl. Scan quality was evaluated with a Catphan-500 performance phantom and anthropomorphic phantoms. The FP
MDCT scans demonstrate nearly equivalent performance scans to a commercial 16-slice MDCT scanner at comparable
10 - 20 mGy/100mAs doses. Thus far, a high contrast resolution of 15 lp/cm and a low contrast resolution of 5 mm @
0.3 % have been achieved on 1 second scans. Sub-second scans have been achieved with partial rotations. Since the
future direction of MDCT appears to be in acquiring single organ coverage per scan, future efforts are planned for
increasing the number of detector rows beyond the current 64- rows.
This paper explores the potential of flat panel detectors in sub-second CT scanning applications. Using a PaxScan 4030CB with 600um thick CsI(Tl), a central section of the panel (16 to 32 rows), was scanned at frame rates up to 1000fps. Using this platform, fundamental issues related to high speed scanning were characterized. The offset drift of the imager over 60 seconds was found to be less than 0.014 ppm/sec relative to full scale. The gain stability over a 10 hour period is better than +/- .45%, which is at the resolution limit of the measurement. Two different types of lag measurements were performed in order to separate the photodiode array lag from the CsI afterglow. The panel lag was found to be 0.41% 1st frame and 0.054% 25th frame at 1000fps. The CsI(Tl) afterglow, however, is roughly an order of magnitude higher, dominating the lag for sub-second scans. At 1000fps the 1st frame lag due to afterglow was 3.3% and the 25th frame lag was 0.34%. Both the lag and afterglow are independent of signal level and each follows a simple power law evolution versus time. Reconstructions of anatomical phantoms and the CATPHAN 500 phantom are presented. With a 2 second, 1200 projection scan of the CATPHAN phantom at 600fps in 32 slice mode, using 120kVp and CTDI100 of 43.2mGy, 0.3% contrast resolution for a 6mm diameter target, can be visualized. In addition, 15lp/cm spatial resolution was achieved with a 2mm slice and a central CTDI100 of 10.8mGy.
The dynamic range of many flat panel imaging systems are fundamentally limited by the dynamic range of the charge amplifier and readout signal processing. We developed two new flat panel readout methods that achieve extended dynamic range by changing the read out charge amplifier feedback capacitance dynamically and on a real-time basis. In one method, the feedback capacitor is selected automatically by a level sensing circuit, pixel-by-pixel, based on its exposure level. Alternatively, capacitor selection is driven externally, such that each pixel is read out two (or more) times, each time with increased feedback capacitance. Both methods allow the acquisition of X-ray image data with a dynamic range approaching the fundamental limits of flat panel pixels. Data with an equivalent bit depth of better than 16 bits are made available for further image processing. Successful implementation of these methods requires careful matching of selectable capacitor values and switching thresholds, with the imager noise and sensitivity characteristics, to insure X-ray quantum limited operation over the whole extended dynamic range. Successful implementation also depends on the use of new calibration methods and image reconstruction algorithms, to insure artifact free rebuilding of linear image data by the downstream image processing systems.
The multiple gain ranging flat panel readout method extends the utility of flat panel imagers and paves the way to new flat panel applications, such as cone beam CT. We believe that this method will provide a valuable extension to the clinical application of flat panel imagers.
Preliminary results are presented from the PaxScan 4030A; a 40x30cm, 2048 x 1536 landscape, flat panel imager, with 194um pixel pitch. This imager builds on our experience with the PaxScan 2520, a 127um real-time flat panel detector capable of both high-resolution radiography and low dose fluoroscopy. While the PS2520 has been applied in C-arms, neuroangiography, cardiac imaging and small area radiographic units, the larger active area of the PaxScan 4030A addresses the broader applications of angiography, general R&F and cone-beam CT. The PaxScan 4030A has the same electrical and software interfaces as the PS2520; however, a number of innovations have been incorporated into the 4030A to increase its versatility. The most obvious change is that the data interface between the receptor and command processor has been reduced to one very flexible and thin fiber-optic cable. A second new feature for the 4030A is the use of split datalines. Split datalines facilitate scanning the two halves of the array in parallel, cutting the readout time in half and increasing the time window for pulsed x-ray delivery to 15ms at 30fps. In addition, split datalines result in lower noise, which, coupled with the larger signal of the 194um pixels, enables high quality imaging at lower fluoroscopy doses rates.
This paper describes a third-generation multi-mode x-ray imager whose applications include low-dose fluoroscopy, cine, spot films, and radiography. In addition, volumetric CT and applications whose environment includes a 2 tesla magnetic field are also in development. The VIP-9 is based on an amorphous silicon TFT/Photodiode array and x-ray conversion screen, which is optionally a deposited CsI(Tl) film or a removable Gd2O2S screen. There are three primary modes of operation: RAD for high resolution radiographs and spot films; Fluoro for video rate, low dose fluoroscopy as well as cine; Zoom for high resolution, limited field of view (FOV) fluoroscopy. Through improved electronics, the imager has greater sensitivity at low doses and far better rejection of correlated line noise than its predecessors. In addition, the VIP-9 incorporates many ease-of-use features absent from earlier prototype imagers. While previous reports have primarily focused on the imager construction and noise issues in large area sensing technology, in this paper the emphasis is on features which facilitate integration into a complete imaging system and measures of image quality.
An amorphous silicon medical imaging system designed to operate in both radiographic and fluoroscopic modes is described. Images of medical phantoms are presented for both modes of operation. MTF and DQE measurements are also presented. The effect of recursive filtering on the DQE performance of the system operating in fluoroscopic mode is discussed.
This paper describes a multi-mode, digital imager for real- time x-ray applications. The imager has three modes of operation: low dose fluoroscopy, zoom fluoroscopy, and high resolution radiography. These modes trade-off resolution or field-of-view for frame rate and additionally optimize the sensitivity of the imager to match the x-ray dose used in each mode. This large area sensing technology has a form factor similar to that of a film cassette, no geometric image distortion, no sensitivity to magnetic fields, a very large dynamic range which eliminates repeat shots due to over or under exposure, 12 bit digital output and the ability to switch between operating modes in real-time. The imager, which consists of three modules: the Receptor, the Power Supply and the Command Processor, is intended as a component in a larger imaging system. Preliminary characterization of the prototype imager in fluoroscopic mode at entrance exposure rates down to 2.5 (mu) R/frame, indicates that the DQE(f), MTF and low contrast resolution are comparable to that obtained with an image intensifier tube (IIT) coupled to a video camera.
This paper describes a dual-mode, flat panel imaging system capable of both fluoroscopy and radiography. Two generations of large area sensing technology are described. The general system architecture incorporates both the high sensitivity and data throughput required for fluoroscopy with the large signal capacity, spatial resolution and form factor necessary for radiography.
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