We investigate the chiral response of type I collagen using polarimetric second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy. By flipping the sample, we observe changes in the sign of the amplitude of the chiral susceptibility ratio (C), while its retardancy phase with respect to the achiral ratio (R) remains unchanged. Our findings suggest that the chiral response of collagen originates from the interaction between electric dipole moments and laser radiation. This study demonstrates the potential of polarimetric SHG microscopy for studying collagen properties and visualizing disease-related alterations.
In this work, multimodal two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) and third-harmonic generation (THG) microscopy is used together with second-harmonic generation (SHG) to image gold standard hematoxylin and eosin histology slides. The nonlinear responses were investigated for hematoxylin and eosin stains. It is shown that the extracellular matrix (ECM) can be visualized using THG image contrast. THG signal is typically associated with interfaces and nanostructures where abrupt changes in the refractive index takes place, e.g. at blood vessel walls as well as the dense nuclei. Polarimetric THG provides a new method for ultrastructural ECM visualization. The ability of THG microscopy to visualize simultaneously nuclei and ECM is exemplified by imaging clinical tissue samples. THG turned out to be an excellent counterstaining contrast to SHG that reveals ECM proteins, cells and cell nuclei, which can be utilized for studying interactions between cells and ECM. Multiphoton imaging can be applied for investigation of structural changes in connective tissue due to various diseases and is beneficial in observing ECM and cell nuclei in cancer diagnostics and prognostics.
Collagen has hierarchical structure and often undergoes remodeling at the tumor margin [1]. Polarimetric second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy can be used to investigate changes in the collagen structure and provide insight into the metastatic progression of cancer. In this work, we apply double Stokes-Mueller polarimetry (DSMP) to investigate the disorder of collagen at the tumor margin. The disorder is analyzed at several levels of spatial organization – texture analysis (gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) method) is applied at the microscopic tissue organizational level, while ultrastructure is analyzed with DSMP to obtain nonlinear susceptibility tensor for each image voxel. This allows to comprehensively investigate the changes occurring in collagen during tumor progression.
[1] Winkler, J. et al., “Concepts of extracellular matrix remodelling in tumour progression and metastasis”, Nat Commun 11, 5120 (2020).
Extracellular matrix (ECM) has important functions in cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration, which influence the development and progression of cancer. ECM in tumor microenvironment experiences changes in composition and structure that can appear early in tumor development and could serve as a biomarker for cancer diagnostics. In addition, some changes in ECM may correlate with the rate of tumor progression or its tendency to form metastases and would allow to predict future tumor development [1].
Collagen is an important structural protein found in ECM. It has a non-centrosymmetric structure, and, thus, can be easily visualized using second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy. SHG microscopy employs certain polarimetric techniques to gain detailed information about the organization of collagen in various tissues [2].
In this work, polarimetric SHG microscopy is used to acquire collagen images from normal and cancerous regions of human colon and pancreas histological samples. Texture analysis is performed on SHG intensity and polarization images to characterize the distribution of ultrastructure parameters in the tissue. Significant differences are observed in collagen ultrastructure between normal and tumor areas. Further, collagen structures of colon and pancreas tumor microenvironments are compared to investigate relative differences in ECM organization between the tissues. Finally, a machine learning classifier is used to group the acquired images in tumor and normal groups. The results show potential for development of novel cancer diagnostic technique using polarimetric second harmonic generation microscopy and texture analysis.
[1] Winkler, J. et al., “Concepts of extracellular matrix remodelling in tumour progression and metastasis”, Nat Commun 11, 5120 (2020).
[2] Golaraei, A. et al., “Polarimetric second-harmonic generation microscopy of the hierarchical structure of collagen in stage I-III non-small cell lung carcinoma,” Biomed. Opt. Express 11, 1851-1863 (2020).
Polarimetric second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy techniques are powerful tools to reveal sub-molecular information from biological specimens. Among biological samples collagen with a noncentrosymmetric structure and efficient SHG conversion has been the focus of many studies. Since collagen remodeling takes place due to cancer progression, it is important to develop tools to detect and understand the ultrastructural changes in collagen assembly using polarimetric nonlinear microscopy. Several polarimetric techniques have been developed to probe susceptibility ratios, in-plane orientation, and out of the image plane orientation of collagen. Polarization-In Polarization-Out (PIPO) and SHG circular dichroism (SHG-CD) techniques have been used to calculate the out of the image plane orientation and chirality of collagen. In this work, we study the correlation between SHG-CD and the chiral susceptibility ratio (C) in order to reveal the collagen chirality, and the collagen fiber tilt out of image plane. A numerical modeling is used to understand the relation between aforementioned parameters and the chirality and out of the image plane orientation of collagen. The results of numerical modeling show similar behaviors for SHG-CD and the chiral susceptibility ratio (C) calculated from PIPO measurements. The results obtained from rat tail tendon collagen confirms that the sign of both SHG-CD and C ratio changes by flipping the sample as it is predicted by the numerical modeling. The results also show that both SHG-CD and C ratio may become miscalculated when antiparallel chiral fibers are present in the focal volume of the microscope. The results of this study confirm that polarimetric SHG microscopy techniques are able to reveal 3D structure of biological samples and therefore they are beneficial to the diagnosis of collagen related diseases.
Development and metastasis of cancer are known to change the structure of extracellular matrix (ECM), which affect the tumor's further growth and spread. A substantial part of ECM is comprised of collagen, which is a noncentrosymmetric structure. As a result, it generates second harmonic signals, dependent on the polarization of incoming light. This property of collagen led to the applications of polarization-resolved second-harmonic generation (P-SHG) microscopy in investigating collagen ultrastructure changes in different cancers.
In this work, multiphoton absorption fluorescence (MPF), third-harmonic generation (THG) and polarimetric second-harmonic generation (P-SHG) measurements were performed on various types and staging of human melanoma histological sections. Reduced polarimetry techniques, employing linear and circular polarization states, were used to obtain polarimetric SHG parameters of collagen in both normal and cancerous tissues. These parameters provide important information about the structural properties of collagen.
The parameter distributions were analyzed using a grey-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM), which allows to obtain statistical parameters, such as correlation, contrast, entropy, angular second moment and inverse difference moment.
Statistical tests were performed on polarimetric and texture analysis data in order to determine whether parameter distribution differences in normal and cancerous tissues are statistically significant.
Furthermore, a machine learning classifier algorithm was trained to distinguish normal tissues from cancerous using aforementioned polarimetric and texture parameters as predictors. Firstly, separate training and testing datasets were formed from each sample and classification was carried out for each of them individually and afterwards, a common training dataset was used for all samples.
The results suggest that normal and cancerous skin tissues can be distinguished from each other with the help of multimodal nonlinear polarimetric microscopy. Also, depending on the type and stage of melanoma, the differences in some polarimetric and texture parameters are more pronounced, suggesting its possible application in melanoma diagnostics and differentiation.
Wide-field Polarization-resolved Second-Harmonic Generation microscopy is a label-free imaging technique which highlights molecular organization of collagenous tissues, enabling high-throughput quantitative biomedical imaging and cancer diagnostics.
Multicontrast nonlinear microscopy with SHG and THG were used to image normal and cancerous human colon histology samples, and texture analysis was applied to investigate the changes in collagen structure occurring during carcinogenesis.
Nonlinear response of complex chiral structures depends on the fibers configuration in the focal volume. The impact of various configuration on nonlinear parameters extracted using a polarimetric second harmonic generation (SHG) microscope has been elucidated.
Polarimetric second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy study of collagen in
cancerous and normal tissues showed the differences in SHG intensity, susceptibility ratio R and
fiber orientation distribution suggesting a modified collagen structure.
A polarimetric third-harmonic generation microscopy based on nonlinear Stokes-Mueller polarimetry theory is presented. All eight observable χ(3) tensor components of a β-carotene crystallite are extracted and a chiral component is identified.
Linear polarization-in, polarization-out second-harmonic generation microscopy was used to
study the effect of Photodynamic therapy treatment on enhancing the healing of femur fracture by
investigating the ultrastructure of collagen as a major component of bone matrix.
Changes in the ultrastructure of collagen in various tumor and non-tumor human tissues including lung, pancreas and thyroid were investigated ex vivo by a polarization-sensitive second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy technique referred to as polarization-in, polarization-out (PIPO) SHG. This involves measuring the orientation of the linear polarization of outgoing SHG as a function of the linear polarization orientation of incident laser radiation. From the PIPO SHG data, the second-order nonlinear optical susceptibility tensor component ratio, χ(2) ZZZ’/χ(2) ZXX’, for each pixel of the SHG image was obtained and presented as color-coded maps. Further, the orientation of collagen fibers in the tissue was deduced. Since the χ(2) ZZZ’/χ(2) ZXX’ values represent the organization of collagen in the tissue, theses maps revealed areas of altered collagen structure (not simply concentration) within tissue sections. Statistically-significant differences in χ(2) ZZZ’/χ(2) ZXX’ were found between tumor and non-tumor tissues, which varied from organ to organ. Hence, PIPO SHG microscopy could potentially be used to aid pathologists in diagnosing cancer. Additionally, PIPO SHG microscopy could aid in characterizing the structure of collagen in other collagen-related biological processes such as wound repair.
Second harmonic generation (SHG) polarization microscopy was used to investigate the organization of myosin nanomotors in myofilaments of muscle cells. The distribution of the second-order nonlinear susceptibility component ratio χzzz(2)/χzxx(2) along anisotropic bands of sarcomeres revealed differences between the headless and head-containing regions of myofilaments. The polarization-in polarization-out SHG measurements of headless myosin mutants of indirect flight muscle in Drosophila melanogaster confirmed a lower susceptibility component ratio compared to the head-containing myocytes with wild-type myosins. The increase in the ratio is assigned to the change in the deflection angle of the myosin S2 domain and possible contribution of myosin heads. The nonlinear susceptibility component ratio is a sensitive indicator of the myosin structure, and therefore, it can be used for conformational studies of myosin nanomotors. The measured ratio values can also be used as the reference for ab initio calculations of nonlinear optical properties of different parts of myosins.
A hierarchical model of the organization of fibrillar collagen is developed and its implications on polarization-resolved
second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy are investigated. A “ground-up” approach is employed to develop the
theory for understanding of the origin of SHG from fibrillar collagen. The effects of fibril ultrastructure and fibril
macroscopic organization on the second-order polarization properties of fibrillar collagen are presented in conjunction
with recent ab initio results performed on a collagen triple-helix model (-GLY-PRO-HYP-)n. Various tissues containing
fibrillar collagen are quantified using a polarization-resolved SHG technique, termed polarization-in, polarization-out
(PIPO) and interpreted in light of the aforementioned theory. The method involves varying the incident laser
polarization, while monitoring the SHG intensity through an analyzer. From the SHG polarization data the orientation of
the fibers, in biological tissue, can be deduced. Unique PIPO signatures are observed for different rat tissues and
interpreted in terms of the collagen composition, fibril ultrastructure, and macroscopic organization. Similarities and
discrepancies in the second-order polarization properties of different collagen types and ultrastructures will be presented.
PIPO SHG microscopy shows promise in its ability to quantify the organization of collagen in various tissues. The
ability to characterize the structure of collagen in various tissue microenvironments will aid in the study of numerous
collagen related biological process, including tissue diseases, wound repair, and tumor development and progression.
We demonstrate a multimodal, multifocal, differential nonlinear optical microscope, which is equipped with a pair of
deformable mirrors and a Shack-Hartmann sensor for dynamic wavefront manipulation. The optical wavefronts of a
home built Yb:KGW femtosecond (1028 nm) laser-beams are engineered to perform multidepth focusing in differential
mode with simultaneous corrections for optical aberrations. The 39-actuator deformable mirrors provide fast reshaping
of the wavefront and optical aberrations correction of the diffraction-limited focal volume allowing for fast axial
scanning. Combination of ~200 frames per second lateral scanning with fast refocusing enables a three-dimensional
video rate scanning capability, which is essential for studying rapid dynamics in biological organisms, such as blood
flow, cardiac contractions, and motility of microorganisms in a three-dimensional volume.
Imaging hematoxylin-and-eosin-stained cancerous histological sections with multicontrast nonlinear excitation fluorescence, second- and third-harmonic generation (THG) microscopy reveals cellular structures with extremely high image contrast. Absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy together with second hyperpolarizability measurements of the dyes shows that strong THG appears due to neutral hemalum aggregation and is subsequently enhanced by interaction with eosin. Additionally, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy reveals eosin fluorescence quenching by hemalums, showing better suitability of only eosin staining for fluorescence microscopy. Multicontrast nonlinear microscopy has the potential to differentiate between cancerous and healthy tissue at a single cell level.
We report on the development of a widely tunable high power optical parametric oscillator (OPO) based on
a diode-pumped femtosecond Yb:KGW laser. The laser operates at a wavelength of 1030 nm and can produce up to
3.7 W of average power in 300 fs pulses at 61 MHz repetition rate. Owing to its high peak power (>200 kW) this
laser is well suited for the development of the OPO in the near-infrared spectral region. Design considerations of the
OPO are also discussed and include the choice of the nonlinear material, its dispersive characteristics, wavelength
tuning methods and operating wavelength ranges, phase-matching properties for accurate crystal design as well as
OPO pumping configuration.
Drosophila melanogaster larva myocytes are imaged with second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy undergoing forced stretching and rhythmic contractions to determine the nature of the SHG signal. During stretching, double peaked SHG profiles of the anisotropic (A-) bands evolve into single peaks with a higher SHG intensity. The dip in the intensity profile at the center of the A-band is attributed to destructive interference from out-of-phase second harmonic radiating myosin molecules that, in the central region of myofilaments, are arranged antiparallel. An intensity increase at the center of the A-band appears during forced stretching due to a small, less than 100 nm, intermyofilament separation of the antiparallel myosin molecules leading to constructive interference of the SHG radiation. In addition, the same phenomenon occurs during periodic contractions of the myocyte, where an SHG intensity increase with the lengthening of sarcomeres is observed. The SHG intensity dependence on sarcomere length can be used for imaging myocyte contractions with low resolution microscopy, and can be applied for the development of diagnostic tools where monitoring of muscle contraction dynamics is required.
Histological investigations of biological tissue benefited tremendously from staining different cellular structures
with various organic dyes. With the introduction of new imaging modalities such as second harmonic generation
(SHG) and third harmonic generation (THG) microscopy, the demand for novel dyes that enhance the harmonic
signals has arisen. The new labels with high molecular hyperpolarizability have recently been termed
harmonophores. In this study, we demonstrate that hematoxylin, the standard histological stain used in H&E
(hematoxylin and eosin) staining, enhances the microscopic THG signal. Hematoxylin has an affinity for
basophilic structures such as the cell nucleus, ribosomes and mitochondria, while eosin stains structures such as
the cytoplasm, collagen and red blood cells. The histological sections of H&E stained cancerous prostate tissue
found in transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) have been investigated with the multimodal
SHG, THG and multiphoton excitation fluorescence (MPF) microscope. Strong THG signal revealed intracellular
structures originating where the hematoxylin stain resides, while SHG imaging of the tissue showed the presence
of collagen fibrils in the extracellular matrix. The MPF was mostly present in the extracellular matrix. The
spectrally and temporally resolved MPF revealed that most of the fluorescence originates from the eosin. The
THG image did not correlate with MPF confirming that the harmonic signal originates from hematoxylin.
Multimodal nonlinear microscopy adds invaluable information about cellular structures to the widely used bright
field investigations of H&E stained histological sections, and can be efficiently used for morphological studies as
well as cancer diagnostics.
We report on the development and successful application of a femtosecond Yb:KGd(WO4)2 laser for multimodal imaging of various biological samples. Its operation at longer wavelengths, 1029 nm, provided efficient excitation and greatly reduced sample photobleaching. The laser produced ~300 fs pulses with up to 100 nJ of energy at 14.3 MHz repetition rate. This laser system enabled continuous imaging of various live samples for prolonged periods of time. The details of laser development and fluorescence imaging of isolated chloroplasts are reported.
The functional dynamics and structure of both larval and adult Drosophila melanogaster muscle were
investigated with a nonlinear multimodal microscope. Imaging was carried out using a home built microscope capable of
recording the multiphoton excitation fluorescence, second harmonic generation, and third harmonic generation signals
simultaneously at a scanning rate of up to ~12 frames/sec. The sample was excited by a home built femtosecond
Ti:Sapphire laser at 840 nm, or by a Yb-ion doped potassium gadolinium tungstate (Yb:KGW) crystal based oscillator at
1042 nm. There was no observable damage detected in the myocyte after prolonged scanning with either of the lasers.
Microscopic second harmonic generation (SHG) appears particularly strong in the myocytes. This allows the
fast contraction dynamics of the myocytes to be followed. The larger sarcomere size observed in the larvae myocytes is
especially well suited for studying the contraction dynamics. Microscopic imaging of muscle contractions showed
different relaxation and contraction rates. The SHG intensities were significantly higher in the relaxed state of the
myocyte compared to the contracted state. The imaging also revealed disappearance of SHG signal in highly stretched
sarcomeres, indicating that SHG diminishes in the disordered structures. The study illustrates that SHG microscopy,
combined with other nonlinear contrast mechanisms, can help to elucidate physiological mechanisms of contraction. This
study also provides further insight into the mechanisms of harmonic generation in biological tissue and shows that
crystalline arrangement of macromolecules has a determining factor for the high efficiency second harmonic generation
from the bulk structures.
We present the design and development of a diode-pumped high average power femtosecond laser based on a crystal of Yb-ion doped potassium gadolinium tungstate (Yb:KGW) and a semiconductor saturable absorber for passive mode-locking. The laser delivered up to 0.85 W of average power with ~200 fs pulses at a repetition rate of 14.6 MHz, corresponding to a pulse energy of 60 nJ with a peak power of ~300 kW. The developed laser system was used to visualize the structure of muscle cells from Drosophila melanogaster larvae in vivo by acquiring high-resolution images with a nonlinear multimodal scanning microscope, capable of simultaneous detection of two-photon fluorescence, second and third harmonic signals.
Nonlinear microscopy is a very attractive tool for studying photosynthetic organisms on cellular and subcellular levels.
The multimodal microscope can be employed to image photosynthetic structures simultaneously with multiphoton
excitation fluorescence (MPF), second harmonic generation (SHG), and third harmonic generation (THG) contrast
mechanisms. Although the multimodal nonlinear microscope delivers invaluable information about the structure,
spectroscopic properties, and functional dynamics of photosynthetic systems, the prompt light-induced changes of highly
light sensitive pigment-protein complexes complicate the extensive study of photosynthetic organisms. In this work, we
investigated the extent of light-induced changes in chloroplasts from higher plants by imaging with a Ti:Sapphire
femtosecond laser and a Yb-ion doped potassium gadolinium tungstate (Yb:KGW) femtosecond laser. The Ti:Sapphire
laser delivered 800 nm wavelength and ~25 fs duration pulses at a 26.7 MHz repetition rate. In comparison, the
Yb:KGW laser provided a 1042 nm wavelength, ~200 fs pulses at a repetition rate of 14.6 MHz. The 800 nm pulses
predominantly excited chlorophyll pigments via two-photon excitation, while 1042 nm excitation resulted in two-photon
absorption of carotenoids. The induced fluorescence quenching, and decrease in SHG and THG signal was much
stronger when imaged with a Ti:Sapphire laser. Prolonged imaging of up to tenths of minutes with the Yb:KGW laser
did not result in appreciable changes of all three nonlinear signals. The difference in the light-induced changes most
probably appears due to the difference in excited state dynamics following chlorophyll or carotenoid excitation. The
slow component of MPF and THG changes as well as change in SHG reflects the light-induced macroorganization of the
grana, while the fast MPF and THG component is tentatively attributed to the generation of quenchers from chlorophyll
molecules. The success in imaging photosynthetic samples for prolonged periods of time with a Yb:KGW laser opens a
new window of opportunity for thorough in vivo investigations of photosynthetic structures.
We report on the development of diode-pumped high power continuous-wave (CW) and ultrashort pulse Yb:KGW lasers for applications in nonlinear multimodal microscopy. In the CW regime we generated 5W of average output power from a simple three-mirror cavity, with 22% of optical-to-optical conversion efficiency. The CW laser was used as a platform for development of a high power mode-locked oscillator. We achieved 2.3W of average output power in the mode-locked regime with ~210 fs duration pulses centered around 1047 nm at a repetition rate of 97 MHz. This corresponds to 24 nJ of energy per pulse and 114 kW of peak power. The demonstrated laser will be used in second- and third-harmonic generation microscopy of biological samples.
Our newly developed multimodal microscope enables simultaneous collection of second harmonic generation (SHG), third harmonic generation (THG) and multiphoton excitation fluorescence (MPF) signals. The signals can be generated within different or the same intercellular structures. In comparing two signals, traditional methods of image crosscorrelation analysis using Pearson's coefficient provide a general parameter as to whether the images are similar, however it does not give detailed information about correlation of different structures inside the images. We present here a new technique that employs a pixel by pixel analysis over an entire area or volume that is used to correlate the structures appearing in the images. The result of the analysis reveals structures within the sample that are generated by both nonlinear signals as well as highlighting the structures that are generated by only one of the nonlinear signals. The algorithm provides a means to colocalize different structures revealed by the different nonlinear contrast mechanisms. Structural correlation maps are useful in identifying the origin of structures in one nonlinear contrast mechanism when the origin of structures in another is known. Image analysis has also been exploited for sequences of images taken in time. The intensity fluctuations in time for each pixel reveal regions of intense physiological activity in biological samples. Correlation of time dependent fluctuations from different pixels in the image time series allows construction of the structural map that undergoes similar time behavior or appears out of phase. These structural correlation analysis techniques are demonstrated based on polystyrene beads and cardiomyocytes.
The results of preliminary investigations toward the design of an optical biosensor instrument for the selective and direct analysis of low copy numbers of target nucleic acids in native form are reported. A concept development prototype was constructed based on a total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) configuration and the use of time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC). Selective detection of interfacial hybrid formation was done by identification of luminescence of characteristic (20ns) lifetime from the intercalant fluorophore ethidium bromide associated with nucleic acid hybrids formed at the interaction surface of optical sensor elements. Results of these investigations suggest that detection limits on the order of 107 dye:dsDNA complexes can be achieved when an effective sensor interaction surface of 150 µm diameter is used. The presence of interfacial nucleic acid duplexes at a sensor surface was further verified by thermal denaturation studies. The sensitivity of this concept design prototype was found to be most limited by long lifetime fluorescence intrinsic to the detection optics in conjunction with large amounts of scatter dispersed from the sensor cartridge. Future directions for continued device development are discussed.
We report on development of frequency-doubled diode-pumped ultrashort pulse Yb:KGW laser operating at 520 nm with approximately 200 fs long pulses at a repetition rate of 15 MHz. For ~2 W of absorbed pump power at 980 nm, the laser delivers up to 30 mW of average power at fundamental wavelength of 1040 nm, corresponding to a pulse energy of 2 nJ. The laser radiation was then frequency-doubled in a single pass configuration within a nonlinear BIBO crystal to produce femtosecond green radiation at 520 nm with peak power of ~200 W. The generated second harmonic served as excitation source of optical DNA sensor based on fluorescence lifetime measurements using the time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) technique.
Laser scanning nonlinear optical microscopy is used to study structure and dynamics of cellular and sub-cellular structures in vivo. Under tight focusing conditions with a high numerical aperture objective, nonlinear optical signals such as third harmonic generation (THG), second harmonic generation (SHG), and multiphoton excitation fluorescence (MPF) are simultaneously produced. MPF is extensively used in biological imaging. Unfortunately, fluorescence is accompanied by heat dissipation in the sample and photobleaching effects. On the other hand, parametric processes such as SHG and THG are free of photobleaching since they involve only virtual electronic states where there is no transfer of energy into the medium. There are many naturally occurring structures that exhibit harmonic generation effects, and hence, do not require dyes that can potentially disrupt the normal functionality of the system. SHG is efficiently generated in non-centrosymmetric media, such as chiral structures and interfaces. The THG signal is generated due to a break in symmetry at interfaces and can be enhanced by the presence of multilamellar structures, as in the mitochondria or chloroplasts. Many interesting biological processes, such as signal transduction in neurons or ATP synthesis in mitochondria, involve the movement of ions across membranes. THG and SHG are sensitive to changing electric potential gradients, and hence are ideally suited for dynamical investigations of these biological processes. The present work will expose the structural factors and conditions that influence THG and SHG generation efficiencies in biological samples. Examples of visualizing chloroplasts and mitochondria will illustrate the advantages of harmonic generation microscopy for studying structural and functional properties of the in vivo systems.
The two-photon absorption (TPA) properties of beta-carotene in chloroform solution were investigated over the 590-790 nm wavelength range. The TPA was characterized using the open-aperture z-scan technique with picosecond pulses provided by a widely traveling-wave optical parametric amplifier (OPA) pumped with a Ti:sapphire laser amplifier. We found the 0.2-1 cm/GW values of two photon absorption coefficient in the 725-790 nm wavelength region. At shorter wavelengths, a dramatic increase in the two-photon absorption around 600 nm was observed. The observed two photon absorption dependence on the excitation wavelength can be explained by the onset of strong excitation from the ground state 1Ag to the higher lying two-photon allowed m2Ag band centered around 310 nm (~4 eV).
Dynamic imaging of cardiomyocytes was performed with a simultaneous detection second harmonic generation (SHG), third harmonic generation (THG) and multiphoton excitation fluorescence (MPF) microscope. The fast scanning system of ~12 frames/second synchronized with multichannel detection provided the possibility of imaging three dimensional static and two dimensional dynamic structures of cardiomyocytes. The SHG images highlighted the myofibrils of the cardiomyocytes while THG images revealed the locations of mitochondria. Dynamic data showed that during imaging, chaotic nanocontractions took place inside the cardiomyocytes. The time series of THG images reveled large intensity fluctuations "flickering" in the regions of mitochondria. The flickering in THG correlated with the flickering in MPF. Addition of the uncoupler FCCP inhibited flickering in THG and MPF, and also inhibited nanocontractions. The simultaneous imaging with SHG, THG and MPF proved to be a very powerful microscopy tool for investigation of interactions of different organelles inside a cell.
We show that a simple plane wave analysis can be used even under tight focusing conditions to predict the dependence of third-harmonic generation on the polarization state of the incident beam. Exploiting this fact, we then show that circularly polarized beams may be used to spatially characterize the beam focus and temporally characterize ultrashort pulses in high numerical aperture systems by experimentally demonstrating, for the first time, novel collinear, background-free, third-harmonic intensity autocorrelations in time and space in a high numerical aperture microscope.
Simultaneous detection of second harmonic generation (SHG), third harmonic generation (THG) and multiphoton excitation fluorescence with ultrafast laser pulses from a Nd:Glass laser was used to image isolated adult rat cardiomyocytes. The simultaneous detection enabled visualization of different organelles of cardiomyocytes, based on the different contrast mechanisms. It was found that SHG signal depicted characteristic patterns of sarcomeres in a myofilament lattice. The regular pattern of the THG signal, which was anticorrelated with the SHG signal, suggested that the third harmonic is generated within mitochondria. By labeling the cardiomyocytes with the mitochondrial dye tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester (TMRM), comparisons could be made between the TMRM fluorescence, THG, and SHG images. The TMRM fluorescence had significant correlation with THG signal confirming that part of the THG signal originates from mitochondria.
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