We introduce non-Hermitian plasmonic waveguide-cavity structures based on the Aubry-Andre-Harper model to realize switching between right and left topological edge states using the phase-change material germanium-antimony- tellurium (GST). The structure unit cells consist of a metal-dielectric-metal (MDM) waveguide side-coupled to MDM stub resonators with modulated distances between adjacent stubs. In such structures the modulated distances introduce an effective gauge magnetic field. We show that switching between the crystalline and amorphous phases of GST leads to a shift of the dispersion relation of the optimized structure so that a right topological edge state for the crystalline phase, and a left topological edge state for the amorphous phase occur at the same frequency. Thus, we realize switching between right and left topological edge states at that frequency by switching between the crystalline and amorphous phases of GST. Our results could be potentially important for developing compact reconfigurable topological photonic devices.
We introduce a nanoplasmonic isolator consisting of a cavity coupled to a metal-dielectric-metal (MDM) waveguide. The waveguide and cavity are filled with a magneto-optical (MO) material, and the structure is under a static magnetic field. We show that, when MO activity is present, the cavity becomes a traveling wave resonator with unequal decay rates into the forward and backward directions. As a result, the structure operates as an isolator. We also introduce non-Hermitian plasmonic waveguide-cavity systems with topological edge states (TESs) at singular points. The structure unit cells consist of an MDM waveguide side-coupled to MDM stub resonators with modulated distances between adjacent stubs. In such structures the modulated distances introduce an effective gauge magnetic field. We show that such structures achieve extremely high sensitivity of the reflected light intensity. TESs at singular points could lead to singularity-based plasmonic devices with enhanced performance.
We investigate the exceptional points in a two-layer cylindrical waveguide structure consisting of absorbing and nonabsorbing dielectrics. We show that by tuning the parameters of the structure the complex effective indices of two waveguide modes can coalesce so that an exceptional point is formed. We show that the sensitivity of the effective index of the waveguide mode is enhanced at the exceptional point. We also investigate using phase-change materials in multilayer structures to switch between singular points. We show that in multilayer structures consisting of phasechange, lossless dielectric, lossy, and gain materials, absorbing or spectral singularities can be switched to exceptional points, and self-dual spectral singularities can be switched to unidirectional spectral singularities by switching the phasechange material from its crystalline to its amorphous phase. Our results could be important for developing new compact reconfigurable singularity-enhanced optical devices.
Normal development of the visual system in infants relies on clear images being projected onto the retina, which can be disrupted by lens opacity caused by congenital cataract. This disruption, if uncorrected in early life, results in amblyopia (permanently decreased vision even after removal of the cataract). Doctors are able to prevent amblyopia by removing the cataract during the first several weeks of life, but this surgery risks a host of complications which can be equally visually disabling. Here, we investigated the feasibility of focusing light noninvasively through highly scattering cataractous lenses to stimulate the retina, thereby preventing amblyopia. This approach would allow the cataractous lens removal surgery to be delayed and hence greatly reduce the risk of complications from early surgery. Employing a wavefront shaping technique named time-reversed ultrasonically encoded (TRUE) optical focusing in reflection mode, we focused 532 nm light through a highly scattering ex vivo adult human cataractous lens of 112 mean free path thick. This work demonstrates a potential clinical application of wavefront shaping techniques.
We introduce a non-parity-time-symmetric three-layer structure, consisting of a gain medium layer sandwiched between two phase-change medium layers for switching of the direction of reflectionless light propagation. We show that for this structure unidirectional reflectionlessness in the forward direction can be switched to unidirectional reflectionlessness in the backward direction at the optical communication wavelength by switching the phase-change material Ge2Sb2Te5 (GST) from its amorphous to its crystalline phase. We also show that it is the existence of exceptional points for this structure with GST in both its amorphous and crystalline phases which leads to unidirectional reflectionless propagation in the forward direction for GST in its amorphous phase, and in the backward direction for GST in its crystalline phase. Our results could be potentially important for developing a new generation of compact active free-space optical devices. We also show that phase-change materials can be used to switch photonic nanostructures between cloaking and superscattering regimes at mid-infrared wavelengths. More specifically, we investigate the scattering properties of subwavelength three-layer cylindrical structures in which the material in the outer shell is the phase-change material GST. We first show that, when GST is switched between its amorphous and crystalline phases, properly designed electrically small structures can switch between resonant scattering and cloaking invisibility regimes. The contrast ratio between the scattering cross sections of the cloaking invisibility and resonant scattering regimes reaches almost unity. We then also show that larger, moderately small cylindrical structures can be designed to switch between superscattering and cloaking invisibility regimes, when GST is switched between its crystalline and amorphous phases. The contrast ratio between the scattering cross sections of cloaking invisibility and superscattering regimes can be as high as ~ 93%. Our results could be potentially important for developing a new generation of compact reconfigurable optical devices.
Digital optical phase conjugation (DOPC) enables many optical applications by permitting focusing of light through scattering media. However, DOPC systems require precise alignment of all optical components, particularly of the spatial light modulator (SLM) and camera, in order to accurately record the wavefront and perform playback through the use of time-reversal symmetry. We present a digital compensation technique to optimize the alignment of the SLM in five degrees of freedom, permitting focusing through thick scattering media with a thickness of 5 mm and transport scattering coefficient of 2.5 mm − 1 while simultaneously improving focal quality, as quantified by the peak-to-background ratio, by several orders of magnitude over an unoptimized alignment.
Conventional photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT) images the spatial distribution of optical absorption, which is approximated as an isotropic optical property. The optical absorption of many biological tissues, however, is anisotropic. This anisotropy, known as dichroism or diattenuation, encodes rich information about molecular conformation and structural alignment. Here we report a novel imaging method called dichroism-sensitive PACT (DS-PACT). Using a lock-detection strategy, our method can measure the amplitude of tissue’s dichroism and the orientation of the optic axis of uniaxial dichroic tissue, even at a depth of 3.25 transport mean free paths. We experimentally demonstrated DS-PACT by imaging plastic polarizers and ex vivo bovine tendons deep inside scattering media. Our method extends the functionality of PACT to include a new capability, imaging tissue absorption anisotropy.
Wavefront shaping techniques are being actively developed to achieve optical focusing through and inside opaque scattering media. These techniques promise to revolutionize biophotonics by enabling deep-tissue non-invasive optical imaging, optogenetics, optical tweezing, and light-based therapy. Among the existing wavefront shaping techniques, optical time-reversal-based techniques determine the optimum wavefront globally based on the principle of time reversal, without the need to perform time-consuming iterations to optimize each mode in sequence. In all previous optical time-reversal-based wavefront shaping experiments, Nyquist sampling criterion was followed so that the scattered light field was well-sampled during wavefront measurement and wavefront reconstruction. In this work, we overturn this conventional practice by demonstrating that a high-quality optical focus can still be achieved even when the scattered light field is under-sampled. Even more strikingly, we show both theoretically and experimentally that the focus achieved by the under-sampling scheme can be one order of magnitude brighter than that achieved by the well-sampling schemes used in previous works, where 3×3 to 5×5 pixels sampled one speckle grain on average. Moreover, since neighboring pixels were uncorrelated in feedback-based wavefront shaping, introducing the concept of sub-Nyquist sampling in time-reversal-based wavefront shaping makes the optimal phase maps obtained using these two different methods consistent. We anticipate that this newly explored under-sampling scheme will transform the understanding of optical time reversal and boost the performance of optical imaging, manipulation, and communication through opaque scattering media.
In biological applications, optical focusing is limited by the diffusion of light, which prevents focusing at depths greater than ~1 mm in soft tissue. Wavefront shaping aims to extend the focusing depth by compensating for phase distortions induced by scattering. This allows for focusing light through biological tissue beyond the optical diffusion limit through constructive interference. However, due to random motion, scattering of light in tissue is deterministic only within a brief speckle correlation time. In in vivo tissue this speckle correlation time is on the order of milliseconds, thus it is vital to optimize the wavefront within the correlation time.
The speed of wavefront shaping has typically been limited by the time required to measure and display the optimal phase pattern due to the low speeds of cameras, data transfer and processing, and spatial light modulators (SLM). While methods of binary-phase modulation requiring only two images for phase measurement have recently been reported, the majority of studies require a minimum of four frames for full-phase measurement. Here, we present a full-phase digital optical phase conjugation method based on off-axis holography for single-shot optical focusing through scattering media. By using off-axis holography in conjunction with graphics processing unit (GPU) based processing; we take advantage of single-shot full-phase measurement while using parallel computation to quickly reconstruct the phase map. Using this system, we are able to focus light through scattering media with a system latency of approximately 10 milliseconds, on the order of the in vivo speckle correlation time.
Focusing light deep inside and through thick biological tissue is critical to many applications. However, optical scattering prevents light from being focused through thick biological tissue, which restricts biophotonics to a limited depth of about 1 mm. To break this optical diffusion limit, digital optical phase conjugation (DOPC) based wavefront shaping techniques are being actively developed. Previous DOPC systems employed spatial light modulators that modulated either the phase or the amplitude of the conjugate light field. Here, we achieve optical focusing through scattering media by using polarization modulation based generalized DOPC. First, we describe an algorithm to extract the polarization map from the measured scattered field. Then, we validate the algorithm through numerical simulations, and find the focusing contrast achieved by polarization modulation is similar to that achieved by phase modulation, and is higher than those achieved by binary-phase and binary-amplitude modulations. Finally, we build a system using an inexpensive twisted nematic liquid crystal based spatial light modulator, and experimentally demonstrate light focusing through 3-mm thick chicken breast tissue. Since the polarization modulation based SLMs are widely used in displays and are having more and more pixel counts with the prevalence of 4K displays, these SLMs are inexpensive and valuable devices for wavefront shaping. Thus, we anticipate that polarization modulation based SLMs will gain their prevalence in the field of wavefront shaping.
Normal development of the visual system in infants relies on clear images being projected onto the retina, which can be disrupted by lens opacity caused by congenital cataract. This disruption, if uncorrected in early life, results in amblyopia (permanently decreased vision even after removal of the cataract). Doctors are able to prevent amblyopia by removing the cataract during the first several weeks of life, but this surgery risks a host of complications, which can be equally visually disabling. Here, we investigated the feasibility of focusing light noninvasively through highly scattering cataractous lenses to stimulate the retina, thereby preventing amblyopia. This approach would allow the cataractous lens removal surgery to be delayed and hence greatly reduce the risk of complications from early surgery. Employing a wavefront shaping technique named time-reversed ultrasonically encoded optical focusing in reflection mode, we focused 532-nm light through a highly scattering ex vivo adult human cataractous lens. This work demonstrates a potential clinical application of wavefront shaping techniques.
Based on the photoacoustic (PA) effect, PA tomography directly measures specific optical absorption, i.e., absorbed optical energy per unit volume. We recently developed a full-ring ultrasonic transducer array-based photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT) system for small-animal whole-body imaging. The system has a full-view detection angle and high in-plane resolution (∼100 μm). However, due to the bandpass frequency response of the piezoelectric transducer elements and the limited elevational detection coverage of the full-ring transducer array, the reconstructed images present bipolar (i.e., both positive and negative) pixel values, which cause ambiguities in image interpretation for physicians and biologists. We propose a multiview Hilbert transformation method to recover the unipolar initial pressure for full-ring PACT. The effectiveness of the proposed algorithm was first validated by numerical simulations and then demonstrated with ex vivo mouse brain structural imaging and in vivo mouse whole-body imaging.
Optical phase conjugation based wavefront shaping techniques are being actively developed to focus light through or inside scattering media such as biological tissue, and they promise to revolutionize optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. The speed of digital optical phase conjugation (DOPC) has been limited by the low speeds of cameras and spatial light modulators (SLMs), preventing DOPC from being applied to thick living tissue. Recently, a fast DOPC system was developed based on a single-shot wavefront measurement method, a field programmable gate array (FPGA) for data processing, and a digital micromirror device (DMD) for fast modulation. However, this system has the following limitations. First, the reported single-shot wavefront measurement method does not work when our goal is to focus light inside, instead of through, scattering media. Second, the DMD performed binary amplitude modulation, which resulted in a lower focusing contrast compared with that of phase modulations. Third, the optical fluence threshold causing DMDs to malfunction under pulsed laser illumination is lower than that of liquid crystal based SLMs, and the system alignment is significantly complicated by the oblique reflection angle of the DMD. Here, we developed a simple but high-speed DOPC system using a ferroelectric liquid crystal based SLM (512 × 512 pixels), and focused light through three diffusers within 4.7 ms. Using focused-ultrasound-guided DOPC along with a double exposure scheme, we focused light inside a scattering medium containing two diffusers within 7.7 ms, thus achieving the fastest digital time-reversed ultrasonically encoded (TRUE) optical focusing to date.
Optical phase conjugation (OPC) based wavefront shaping techniques focus light through or within scattering media, which is critically important for deep-tissue optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. However, to date, the sample thicknesses used in wavefront shaping experiments have been limited to only a few millimeters or several transport mean free paths. Here, by using a long-coherence-length laser and an optimized digital OPC system that efficiently delivers light power, we focused 532 nm light through tissue-mimicking phantoms up to 9.6 cm thick, as well as through ex vivo chicken breast tissue up to 2.5 cm thick.
Optical phase conjugation (OPC)-based wavefront shaping techniques focus light through or within scattering media, which is critically important for deep-tissue optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. However, to date, the sample thickness in OPC experiments has been limited to only a few millimeters. Here, by using a laser with a long coherence length and an optimized digital OPC system that can safely deliver more light power, we focused 532-nm light through tissue-mimicking phantoms up to 9.6 cm thick, as well as through ex vivo chicken breast tissue up to 2.5 cm thick. Our results demonstrate that OPC can be achieved even when photons have experienced on average 1000 scattering events. The demonstrated penetration of nearly 10 cm (∼100 transport mean free paths) has never been achieved before by any optical focusing technique, and it shows the promise of OPC for deep-tissue noninvasive optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy.
Optical focusing plays a central role in biomedical optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. However, in scattering media, direct optical focusing becomes infeasible beyond ~10 mean free paths. To break this limit, time-reversed ultrasonically encoded (TRUE) optical focusing phase-conjugates ultrasonically tagged diffuse light back to the ultrasonic focus, thus forming a focus deep inside scattering media. In previous works, the speed of wavefront measurement was limited by the low frame rate of the camera used to record the four images required for phase-shifting holography. Moreover, most of the bits of a pixel value were used to represent an informationless background caused by the large amount of untagged light, increasing the amount of data to transfer and necessitating the use of costly high-resolution analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). Here, we developed a digital TRUE focusing system based on a lock-in camera (300×300 pixels), in which each pixel performs analog lock-in detection on chip. Since only the information of the signal, not that of the background, is digitized, the lock-in camera reduces the amount of data to transfer, and enables the use of cheap low-resolution ADCs. Using this lock-in camera, we were able to measure the wavefront of ultrasonically tagged light in less than 0.3 ms, and to achieve TRUE focusing in between two ground glass diffusers. Even when the signal-to-background ratio dropped to 6.32×10^-4, a phase sensitivity as low as 0.51 rad could still be realized, which is more than enough for digital optical phase conjugation.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.