Dr. Charles R. Lawrence Profile

Dr. Charles R. Lawrence

Chief Scientist for Astronomy and Physics at Jet Propulsion Lab

SPIE Involvement:

Author

Publications (22)

SPIE Journal Paper | 8 December 2022 Open Access

Next-generation active telescope for space astronomy

Stefan Martin, Charles Lawrence, David Redding, Bertrand Mennesson, John Rodgers, Kevin Hurd, Rhonda Morgan, Renyu Hu, John Steeves, Jeffrey Jewell, Charles Phillips, Claudia Pineda, Ned Ferraro, Thibault L. Flinois

JATIS, Vol. 8, Issue 04, 044005, (December 2022) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.JATIS.8.4.044005

KEYWORDS: Telescopes, Space telescopes, Equipment, Mirrors, Astronomical telescopes, Astronomy, Exoplanets, Planets, Coronagraphy, Stars

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We present a design for an active telescope for space astronomy. The telescope is capable of both exoplanet work and general astronomy over wavelengths from ∼100 nm up to 5 μm. The primary mirror is 6 m in diameter, formed by 16 mirror segments that are precisely phased and supported on rigid body actuators and with segment optical surface figures fine-tuned using surface figure actuators. The active primary forms a large deformable mirror (DM) with wavefront error (WFE) correction at the entrance pupil. Thus the largest source of WFE can be removed at the source and is corrected over the entire field of view. This enables diffraction-limited performance at 400 nm and a more efficient optical system over a broader wavelength range than could be achieved by a small DM at a downstream relayed pupil. The telescope is passively cooled to below 100 K at Sun–Earth L2, enabling astronomical-background-limited observations out to 5 μm. Launched on a SpaceX Starship or alternatively National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Space Launch System, the telescope requires minimal deployments. A 72-m-diameter starshade provides a contrast ratio better than 10 − 10 for exoplanet science. Near the visible region, with a 108% working bandwidth from 300 to 1000 nm, a working distance of 120 Mm provides a 51-mas inner working angle (IWA). This band can be moved to shorter or longer wavelengths by adjusting the starshade range from the telescope. Our first-ever thermal analysis of such a starshade shows that a temperature below 100 K can be achieved over a broad range of observing directions, permitting the possibility of working into the infrared. We model the yield in exoplanets that can be observed. A starshade and associated spectrograph offer significant advantages for exoplanet characterization. They enable a much broader instantaneous spectral bandwidth (here 108%) than current coronagraphs (∼10 % to 20% bandwidth), allow both polarizations to be observed simultaneously, and have higher throughput. The IWA is twice as small as can be achieved with a coronagraph and there is no outer working angle. These differences are particularly pronounced in the UV, where coronagraph performance would be strongly affected by throughput losses, wavefront aberrations, Fresnel polarization effects at surfaces, and thermal instability.

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Proceedings Article | 31 August 2022 Presentation + Paper

Review of radio frequency interference and potential impacts on the CMB-S4 cosmic microwave background survey

Darcy Barron, Amy Bender, Ian Birdwell, John Carlstrom, Jacques Delabrouille, Sam Guns, John Kovac, Charles Lawrence, Scott Paine, Nathan Whitehorn

Proceedings Volume 12190, 1219002 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2629651

KEYWORDS: Sensors, Satellites, Electromagnetic coupling, Telescopes, Microwave radiation, Astronomy, Bolometers, Polarization, Satellite communications, Physics

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Proceedings Article | 24 August 2021 Presentation + Paper

The Gamow Explorer: a Gamma-Ray Burst Observatory to study the high redshift universe and enable multi-messenger astrophysics

N. White, F. Bauer, W. Baumgartner, M. Bautz, E. Berger, B. Cenko, T.-C. Chang, A. Falcone, H. Fausey, C. Feldman, D. Fox, O. Fox, A. Fruchter, C. Fryer, G. Ghirlanda, K. Gorski, C. Grant, S. Guiriec, M. Hart, D. Hartmann, J. Hennawi, D. Kann, D. Kaplan, J. Kennea, D. Kocevski, C. Kouveliotou, C. Lawrence, A. Levan, A. Lidz, A. Lien, T. Littenberg, L. Mas-Ribas, M. Moss, P. O'Brien, J. O'Meara, D. Palmer, D. Pasham, J. Racusin, R. Remillard, O. Roberts, P. Roming, M. Rud, R. Salvaterra, R. Sambruna, M. Seiffert, G. Sun, N. R. Tanvir, R. Terrile, N. Thomas, A. van der Horst, W. T. Verstrand, P. Willems, C. Wilson-Hodge, E. Young, L. Amati, E. Bozzo, O. Karczewski, C. Hernandez-Monteagudo, R. Rebolo Lopez, R. Genova-Santos, A. Martin, J. Granot, P. Bemiamini, R. Gil, E. Burns

Proceedings Volume 11821, 1182109 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2599293

KEYWORDS: Galactic astronomy, X-rays, Stars, Observatories, James Webb Space Telescope, Astrophysics, Sensors, Metals, Absorption, Telescopes

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SPIE Journal Paper | 13 March 2021 Open Access

Origins Space Telescope: trades and decisions leading to the baseline mission concept

David Leisawitz, Edward Amatucci, Lynn Allen, Jonathan Arenberg, Lee Armus, Cara Battersby, James Bauer, Ray Bell, Dominic Benford, Edwin Bergin, Jeffrey Booth, Charles Bradford, Damon Bradley, Sean Carey, Ruth Carter, Asantha Cooray, James Corsetti, Larry Dewell, Michael DiPirro, Bret Drake, Matthew East, Kimberly Ennico, Greg Feller, Angel Flores, Jonathan Fortney, Zachary Granger, Thomas Greene, Joseph Howard, Tiffany Kataria, John Knight, Charles Lawrence, Paul Lightsey, John Mather, Margaret Meixner, Gary Melnick, Craig McMurtry, Stefanie Milam, Samuel Moseley, Desika Narayanan, Alison Nordt, Deborah Padgett, Klaus Pontoppidan, Alexandra Pope, Gerard Rafanelli, David Redding, George Rieke, Thomas Roellig, Itsuki Sakon, Carly Sandin, Karin Sandstrom, Anita Sengupta, Kartik Sheth, Lawrence Sokolsky, Johannes Staguhn, John Steeves, Kevin Stevenson, Kate Su, Joaquin Vieira, Cassandra Webster, Martina Wiedner, Edward Wright, Chi Wu, David Yanatsis, Jonas Zmuidzinas, the Origins Space Telescope Mission Concept Study Team

JATIS, Vol. 7, Issue 01, 011014, (March 2021) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.JATIS.7.1.011014

KEYWORDS: Space telescopes, Telescopes, James Webb Space Telescope, Mirrors, Optical instrument design, Astronomy, Space operations, Cryogenics, Aerospace engineering, Cryocoolers

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SPIE Journal Paper | 6 January 2021 Open Access

Origins Space Telescope: baseline mission concept

Edward Amatucci, Lynn Allen, Jonathan Arenberg, Lee Armus, Cara Battersby, James Bauer, Porfirio Beltran, Dominic Benford, Denis Burgarella, Ruth Carter, Danny Chi, Asantha Cooray, James Corsetti, Elvire De Beck, Larry Dewell, Michael DiPirro, Matthew East, Samantha Edgington, Kimberly Ennico, Louis Fantano, David Folta, Joseph Generie, Zachary Granger, Thomas Greene, Alex Griffiths, George Harpole, Frank Helmich, Joseph Howard, Tracee Jamison, Lisa Kaltenegger, Tiffany Kataria, Charles Lawrence, Margaret Meixner, Ted Mooney, Samuel Moseley, Susan Neff, Thanh Nguyen, Alison Nordt, Michael Petach, Susanna Petro, Alexandra Pope, Daniel Ramspacker, Alison Rao, Itsuki Sakon, Karin Sandstrom, Douglas Scott, Lenward Seals, Kartik Sheth, Steven Tompkins, Cassandra Webster, Martina Wiedner, Edward Wright, Chi Wu, Jonas Zmuidzinas, David Leisawitz, Bob Beaman, Raymond Bell, Edward Bergin, Jeffrey Bolognese, Charles Bradford, Damon Bradley, Sean Carey, Tom D'Asto, Kevin Denis, Christopher Derkacz, C. Paul Earle, Gregory Feller, Jonathan Fortney, Benjamin Gavares, Maryvonne Gerin, Keith Harvey, Lawrence Hilliard, Michael Jacoby, Anisa Jamil, J. Scott Knight, Perry Knollenberg, Paul Lightsey, Sarah Lipscy, Eric Mamajek, Gregory Martins, John Mather, Gary Melnick, Stefanie Milam, Desika Narayanan, Jeffrey Olson, Deborah Padgett, John Pohner, Klaus Pontoppidan, Thomas Roellig, Carly Sandin, Larry Sokolsky, Johannes Staguhn, John Steeves, Kevin Stevenson, Eric Stoneking, Kate Su, Kiarash Tajdaran, Joaquin Vieira

JATIS, Vol. 7, Issue 01, 011002, (January 2021) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.JATIS.7.1.011002

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Proceedings Article | 13 December 2020 Poster

Active telescope for UV-through-midIR space astronomy

Charles Lawrence, David Redding, Kevin Hurd, Jeffrey Jewell, Stefan Martin, Rhonda Morgan, Charles Phillips, Claudia Pineda, Michael Rodgers, John Steeves

Proceedings Volume 11443, 114435Z (2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2563177

KEYWORDS: Space telescopes, Telescopes, Astronomy, Astronomical telescopes, Exoplanets, Imaging spectroscopy, Ultraviolet radiation, Visible radiation, Mid-IR, Optics manufacturing

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Proceedings Article | 13 December 2020 Presentation + Paper

ATSA: a cold, active telescope for Space Astronomy

Stefan Martin, Charles Lawrence, David Redding, Michael Rodgers, Kevin Hurd, Jeffrey Jewell, Rhonda Morgan, Charles Phillips, Claudia Pineda, Bertrand Mennesson, John Steeves

Proceedings Volume 11443, 114432A (2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2575505

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Proceedings Article | 9 September 2019 Open Access

The Origins Space Telescope

D. Leisawitz, E. Amatucci, L. Allen, J. Arenberg, L. Armus, C. Battersby, B. Beaman, J. Bauer, R. Bell, P. Beltran, D. Benford, E. Bergin, J. Bolognese, C. Bradford, D. Bradley, D. Burgarella, S. Carey, R. Carter, J. Chi, A. Cooray, J. Corsetti, T. D'Asto, E. De Beck, K. Denis, C. Derkacz, L. Dewell, M. DiPirro, C. P. Earle, M. East, S. Edgington, K. Ennico, L. Fantano, G. Feller, A. Flores, D. Folta, J. Fortney, B. Gavares, J. Generie, M. Gerin, Z. Granger, T. Greene, A. Griffiths, G. Harpole, K. Harvey, F. Helmich, G. Helou, L. Hilliard, J. Howard, M. Jacoby, A. Jamil, T. Jamison, L. Kaltenegger, T. Kataria, J. S. Knight, P. Knollenberg, C. Lawrence, P. Lightsey, S. Lipscy, C. Lynch, E. Mamajek, G. Martins, J. Mather, M. Meixner, G. Melnick, S. Milam, T. Mooney, S. Moseley, D. Narayanan, S. Neff, T. Nguyen, A. Nordt, J. Olson, D. Padgett, M. Petach, S. Petro, J. Pohner, K. Pontoppidan, A. Pope, D. Ramspacher, A. Rao, G. Rieke, M. Rieke, T. Roellig, I. Sakon, C. Sandin, K. Sandstrom, D. Scott, L. Seals, K. Sheth, J. Staguhn, J. Steeves, K. Stevenson, L. Stokowski, E. Stoneking, K. Su, K. Tajdaran, S. Tompkins, J. Turner, J. Vieira, C. Webster, M. Wiedner, E. Wright, C. Wu, J. Zmuidzinas

Proceedings Volume 11115, 111150Q (2019) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2530514

KEYWORDS: Galactic astronomy, Planets, Stars, Telescopes, Astronomy, James Webb Space Telescope, Sensors, Space telescopes, Exoplanets, Observatories

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Proceedings Article | 2 August 2018 Paper

Optical design of PICO: a concept for a space mission to probe inflation and cosmic origins

Karl Young, Marcelo Alvarez, Nicholas Battaglia, Jamie Bock, Jullian Borrill, David Chuss, Brendan Crill, Jacques Delabrouille, Mark Devlin, Laura Fissel, Raphael Flauger, Daniel Green, Kris Gorski, Shaul Hanany, Richard Hills, Johannes Hubmayr, Bradley Johnson, William Jones, Lloyd Knox, Alan Kogut, Charles Lawrence, Tomotake Matsumura, James McGuire, Jeff McMahon, Roger O'Brient, Clement Pryke, Brian Sutin, Xin Zhi Tan, Amy Trangsrud, Qi Wen, Gianfranco De Zotti

Proceedings Volume 10698, 1069846 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2309421

KEYWORDS: Space operations, Optical design, Physics, Microwave radiation, Polarization, Synchrotrons, Magnetism, Stars, Space telescopes, Telescopes

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Proceedings Article | 10 July 2018 Paper

Active mirrors for future space telescopes

John Steeves, David Redding, James Wallace, Charles Lawrence, Todd Gaier, Randall Bartman, Raef Mikhail, Jeff Cavaco, John Vayda

Proceedings Volume 10706, 1070615 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2312645

KEYWORDS: Mirrors, Actuators, Cryogenics, Silicon carbide, Space telescopes, Telescopes

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Proceedings Article | 6 July 2018 Paper

PICO - the probe of inflation and cosmic origins

Brian Sutin, Marcelo Alvarez, Nicholas Battaglia, Jamie Bock, Matteo Bonato, Jullian Borrill, David Chuss, Joelle Cooperrider, Brendan Crill, Jacques Delabrouille, Mark Devlin, Thomas Essinger-Hileman, Laura Fissel, Raphael Flauger, Krzysztof Gorski, Daniel Green, Shaul Hanany, Johannes Hubmayr, Bradley Johnson, William Jones, Lloyd Knox, Alan Kogut, Charles Lawrence, Jeff McMahon, Tomotake Matsumura, Mattia Negrello, Roger O'Brient, Christopher Paine, Clement Pryke, Peter Shirron, Amy Trangsrud, Qi Wen, Karl Young, Gianfranco de Zotti

Proceedings Volume 10698, 106984F (2018) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2311326

KEYWORDS: Sensors, Space operations, Reflectors, Polarization, Electronics, Cryocoolers, Microwave radiation, Space telescopes

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Proceedings Article | 24 September 2012 Paper

A coherent polarimeter array for the Large Scale Polarization Explorer (LSPE) balloon experiment

M. Bersanelli, A. Mennella, G. Morgante, M. Zannoni, G. Addamo, A. Baschirotto, P. Battaglia, A. Baù, B. Cappellini, F. Cavaliere, F. Cuttaia, F. Del Torto, S. Donzelli, Z. Farooqui, M. Frailis, C. Franceschet, E. Franceschi, T. Gaier, S. Galeotta, M. Gervasi, A. Gregorio, P. Kangaslahti, N. Krachmalnicoff, C. Lawrence, G. Maggio, R. Mainini, D. Maino, N. Mandolesi, B. Paroli, A. Passerini, O. Peverini, S. Poli, S. Ricciardi, M. Rossetti, M. Sandri, M. Seiffert, L. Stringhetti, A. Tartari, R. Tascone, D. Tavagnacco, L. Terenzi, M. Tomasi, E. Tommasi, F. Villa, Gi. Virone, A. Zacchei

Proceedings Volume 8446, 84467C (2012) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.925688

KEYWORDS: Polarimetry, Polarization, Telescopes, Staring arrays, Calibration, Electronics, Cryogenics, Sensors, Spatial resolution, Microwave radiation

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Proceedings Article | 6 August 2010 Paper

Optical design of the EPIC-IM crossed Dragone telescope

Huan Tran, Brad Johnson, Mark Dragovan, James Bock, Abdullah Aljabri, Alex Amblard, Daniel Bauman, Marc Betoule, Talso Chui, Loris Colombo, Asantha Cooray, Dustin Crumb, Peter Day, Clive Dickenson, Darren Dowell, Sunil Golwala, Krzysztof Gorski, Shaul Hanany, Warren Holmes, Kent Irwin, Brian Keating, Chao-Lin Kuo, Adrian Lee, Andrew Lange, Charles Lawrence, Steve Meyer, Nate Miller, Hien Nguyen, Elena Pierpaoli, Nicolas Ponthieu, Jean-Loup Puget, Jeff Raab, Paul Richards, Celeste Satter, Mike Seiffert, Meir Shimon, Brett Williams, Jonas Zmuidzinas

Proceedings Volume 7731, 77311R (2010) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.857423

KEYWORDS: Polarization, Telescopes, Mirrors, Device simulation, Optical simulations, Optical design, Space telescopes, Sensors, Space operations, Geometrical optics

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Proceedings Article | 12 July 2008 Paper

The Observatory for Multi-Epoch Gravitational Lens Astrophysics (OMEGA)

Leonidas Moustakas, Adam Bolton, Jeffrey Booth, James Bullock, Edward Cheng, Dan Coe, Christopher Fassnacht, Varoujan Gorjian, Cate Heneghan, Charles Keeton, Christopher Kochanek, Charles Lawrence, Philip Marshall, R. Benton Metcalf, Priyamvada Natarajan, Shouleh Nikzad, Bradley Peterson, Joachim Wambsganss

Proceedings Volume 7010, 70101B (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.789987

KEYWORDS: Galactic astronomy, Sensors, Imaging spectroscopy, Mirrors, Spectroscopy, Observatories, Astrophysics, Photometry, Space telescopes, Hubble Space Telescope

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Dark matter in a universe dominated by a cosmological constant seeds the formation of structure and is the scaffolding for galaxy formation. The nature of dark matter remains one of the fundamental unsolved problems in astrophysics and physics even though it represents 85% of the mass in the universe, and nearly one quarter of its total mass-energy budget. The mass function of dark matter "substructure" on sub-galactic scales may be enormously sensitive to the mass and properties of the dark matter particle. On astrophysical scales, especially at cosmological distances, dark matter substructure may only be detected through its gravitational influence on light from distant varying sources. Specifically, these are largely active galactic nuclei (AGN), which are accreting super-massive black holes in the centers of galaxies, some of the most extreme objects ever found. With enough measurements of the flux from AGN at different wavelengths, and their variability over time, the detailed structure around AGN, and even the mass of the super-massive black hole can be measured. The Observatory for Multi-Epoch Gravitational Lens Astrophysics (OMEGA) is a mission concept for a 1.5-m near-UV through near-IR space observatory that will be dedicated to frequent imaging and spectroscopic monitoring of ~100 multiply-imaged active galactic nuclei over the whole sky. Using wavelength-tailored dichroics with extremely high transmittance, efficient imaging in six channels will be done simultaneously during each visit to each target. The separate spectroscopic mode, engaged through a flip-in mirror, uses an image slicer spectrograph. After a period of many visits to all targets, the resulting multidimensional movies can then be analyzed to a) measure the mass function of dark matter substructure; b) measure precise masses of the accreting black holes as well as the structure of their accretion disks and their environments over several decades of physical scale; and c) measure a combination of Hubble's local expansion constant and cosmological distances to unprecedented precision. We present the novel OMEGA instrumentation suite, and how its integrated design is ideal for opening the time domain of known cosmologically-distant variable sources, to achieve the stated scientific goals.

Proceedings Article | 12 October 2004 Paper

Optimizing cryogen utilization on Spitzer Space Telescope

Charles Lawrence, Paul Finley

Proceedings Volume 5487, (2004) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.551949

KEYWORDS: Helium, Telescopes, Space telescopes, Infrared telescopes, Cryogenics, Liquids, Temperature metrology, Space operations, Mirrors, Aerospace engineering

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Proceedings Article | 12 October 2004 Paper

The infrared spectrograph on the Spitzer Space Telescope

James Houck, Thomas Roellig, Jeff Van Cleve, William Forrest, Terry Herter, Charles Lawrence, Keith Matthews, Harold Reitsema, B. Soifer, Dan Watson, Dan Weedman, Marty Huisjen, John Troeltzsch, Donald Barry, J. Bernard-Salas, Craig Blacken, Bernhard Brandl, Vassilis Charmandaris, Daniel Devost, George Gull, Peter Hall, Charles Henderson, S. James Higdon, Bruce Pirger, Justin Schoenwald, Greg Sloan, Keven Uchida, Philip Appleton, Lee Armus, Martin Burgdorf, Sergio Fajardo-Acosta, Carl Grillmair, Jim Ingalls, Patrick Morris, Harry Teplitz

Proceedings Volume 5487, (2004) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.550517

KEYWORDS: Infrared imaging, Infrared spectroscopy, Infrared telescopes, Calibration, Sensors, Infrared radiation, Space telescopes, Spectrographs, Stars, Spectral resolution

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Proceedings Article | 12 October 2004 Paper

The science case and mission concept for the Single Aperture Far-Infrared (SAFIR) Observatory

Daniel Lester, Dominic Benford, Andrew Blain, Charles Bradford, Mark Dragovan, William Langer, Charles Lawrence, David Leisawitz, John Mather, Samuel Moseley, Lee Mundy, George Rieke, Gordon Stacey, Harold Yorke, Erick Young

Proceedings Volume 5487, (2004) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.551335

KEYWORDS: Observatories, Stars, Space telescopes, James Webb Space Telescope, Telescopes, Galactic astronomy, Mirrors, Infrared telescopes, Spatial resolution, Infrared radiation

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Proceedings Article | 8 October 2004 Paper

Millimeter-wave MMIC cameras and the QUIET experiment

Charles Lawrence, Todd Gaier, Michael Seiffert

Proceedings Volume 5498, (2004) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.553771

KEYWORDS: Polarization, Amplifiers, Bolometers, Polarimetry, Sensors, Prototyping, Field effect transistors, Receivers, Cameras, Cryogenics

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Proceedings Article | 5 March 2003 Paper

Operating SIRTF for maximum lifetime

Charles Lawrence, Peter Eisenhardt, Jan Emming, Paul Finley, Thomas Gautier, George Helou, Richard Hopkins, Gregory Johnson, Jocelyn Keene, Johnny Kwok, Jeff Lee, Stephen Nieczkoski, Thomas Roellig, Russell Schweickart

Proceedings Volume 4850, (2003) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.461953

KEYWORDS: Telescopes, Helium, Infrared telescopes, Space telescopes, Liquids, Thermal modeling, Aerospace engineering, Cryogenics, Thermography, Space operations

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Proceedings Article | 5 March 2003 Paper

The Planck Mission

Charles Lawrence

Proceedings Volume 4850, (2003) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.456505

KEYWORDS: Anisotropy, Polarization, Spatial resolution, Temperature metrology, Sensors, Code division multiplexing, Space operations, Cryogenics, Space telescopes, Sun

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Proceedings Article | 5 July 2000 Paper

Space-based interferometric telescopes for the far infrared

Michael Shao, William Danchi, Michael DiPirro, Mark Dragovan, Lee Feinberg, Mike Hagopian, William Langer, Charles Lawrence, Peter Lawson, David Leisawitz, John Mather, Samuel Moseley, Mark Swain, Harold Yorke, Xiaolei Zhang

Proceedings Volume 4006, (2000) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.390278

KEYWORDS: Sensors, Mirrors, Space telescopes, Interferometers, Telescopes, Stars, Cryogenics, Interferometry, Infrared telescopes, Far infrared

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Proceedings Article | 18 December 1996 Paper

Noise performance of a cryogenically cooled 94-GHz InP MMIC amplifier and radiometer

Todd Gaier, Michael Seiffert, P. Meinhold, Philip Lubin, Michael Sholley, Richard Lai, Huei Wang, Barry Allen, Bruce Osgood, Tom Block, Po-Hsin Liu, Charles Jackson, Charles Lawrence

Proceedings Volume 2842, (1996) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.262791

KEYWORDS: Amplifiers, Radiometry, Cryogenics, Temperature metrology, Field effect transistors, Waveguides, Gallium arsenide, Transistors, Optical isolators, Silicon

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