UVC LEDs are of fundamental importance for many applications, including sterilization and disinfection, thanks to their high efficiency and low environmental impact. However, several physical processes still limit the lifetime and reliability of these devices. We present recent case studies in the field of UVC LED reliability. Initially, we review the performance/efficiency of state-of-the-art commercial devices, and discuss the issues related to LED self-heating, and the related electro-optical transient behavior. Then, we discuss the impact of defects on LED degradation, based on combined deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and deep-level optical spectroscopy (DLOS) measurements, and Technology Computer-Aided Design (TCAD) simulations. We show that, during prolonged operation, UVC LEDs can show considerable changes in the electrical characteristics: a) an increase in the sub-turn on leakage, that can be reproduced by TCAD as due to an increase in trap-assisted tunneling, related to deep traps located in the interlayer between the last barrier and the EBL; b) an increase in the turn-on voltage, that is explained by the degradation of the metal/p-GaN contact, due to a decrease in the active magnesium concentration. Electro-optical measurements reveal that a stronger degradation is detected at low measuring current levels, confirming an important role of defect-mediated recombination. Remarkably, degradation kinetics do not follow an exponential trend, but can be fitted by using the Hill’s formula. A higher Mg doping in the EBL mitigates the degradation rate. Results are interpreted by considering that degradation is due to the de-hydrogenation of point defects, which increases the density of non-radiative recombination centers.
This presentation will provide an overview of the state-of-the-art in the development of AlGaN-based far-UVC-LED technologies. We will explore origins for the observed decline in the external quantum efficiency (EQE) with decreasing emission wavelength and present different approaches to improve the RRE, CIE, and LEE of UV light emitters. We will also discuss design aspects for far-UVC irradiation systems and provide an outlook of future prospects of far-UVC-LED device technology as well as the potential for a wider use of far-UVC sources in applications like room air disinfection.
Electrical and optical excitation of the active region of a UVB LED chip was combined while imaging its in-plane lateral light emission by a UV camera. This made it possible to distinguish between spatial distribution in current density and in efficiency of radiative recombination of charge carriers. It is demonstrated that the degradation of the active region is more prominent in the areas where the local current density increased throughout the long-term operation. It will be shown how the spatial intensity distributions in UVB and UVC LEDs are affected by the operation current, chip design, and mesa edges.
Electrochemical etching of III-nitride-materials is a fast-developing research field. This method is used to selectively porosify or completely etch such materials and thereby opens up a new design space for both photonic and electronic devices. Here we will focus on complete lateral electrochemical etching for substrate removal to realise thin-film vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) and light emitting diodes (LEDs). Key challenges that will be addressed are how to achieve etched surfaces as smooth as the as-grown material and how to protect fully processed and highly doped device structures such as tunnel junctions, during substrate removal.
Recent advances in optimizing the efficiency and lifetime of far-UVC LEDs with emission wavelengths below 240 nm are presented. The design of the semiconductor heterostructure is considered as well as the chip layout. Cross-comparisons are used to draw general conclusions about degradation mechanisms in UV LEDs and to identify development strategies to minimize them. Furthermore, it is discussed which chip packaging is particularly suitable for a combination of far-UVC LEDs with spectral filters. Finally, far-UVC irradiation systems for skin-friendly irradiation of the human body are presented and their performance is illustrated with selected medical and biological data.
Light emitting diodes in the deep ultraviolet spectral range (DUV-LEDs) are of great interest for monitoring gases, pollutants in water as well as the in-vivo inactivation of multi-drug-resistant bacteria. This paper reviews advances in development of AlGaN-based DUV-LEDs, including the realization of low defect density AlN on sapphire. DUV-LEDs near 230 nm with output powers of more than 3 mW will be demonstrated and the root causes for the efficiency drop at shorter UV wavelength will be explored, including changes in the polarization of light emission, the role of point defects as well as carrier injection in AlGaN MQWs.
The market of Ultraviolet (UV) Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) is expected to expand substantially in the coming years, thanks to the disinfection properties of the UV light; however, a detailed study on the reliability-limiting processes is a fundamental step, for an effective deployment of this technology. We investigated the degradation mechanisms of AlGaN-based UV Single Quantum Well (SQW) LEDs, with a nominal emission wavelength of 265 nm, an area of 0.1 mm2 and a nominal current density of 100 A·cm-2. By means of constant current stress test and Capacitance Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (C-DLTS) we studied the main electrical, optical, spectral and capacitance characteristics of the devices, in order to understand the dominant causes of degradation. For aged devices the electrical characterization shows increased subthreshold leakage currents, due to the increase in Trap Assisted Tunneling (TAT) components, as well as an increase in drive voltage, which is ascribed to contact degradation or a decrease in injection efficiency. The optical output power showed a decrease especially at low current levels, which has been ascribed to an increase in non-radiative recombination and suggests the generation of defects in the LED active region. C-DLTS measurements showed in unaged devices the presence of two defects in the structure, both ascribed to magnesium (Mg), located at 475 meV and 150 meV from the respective band. Moreover, we detected the increase in concentration of a third defect during the stress test with an activation energy of 700 meV, that acts as a point defect, and could be ascribed to gallium vacancies or nitrogen antisites.
III-N optoelectronic devices are of great interest for many applications. Visible emitters (based on InGaN) are widely used in the lighting, display and automotive fields. Ultraviolet LEDs (based on AlGaN) are expected to be widely used for disinfection, medical treatments, surface curing and sensing. Photodetectors and solar cells based on InGaN are also of interest, thanks to their great robustness and wavelength tunability. III-N semiconductors are expected to be robust, thanks to the wide bandgap (allowing high temperature operation) and to the high breakdown field (favoring the robustness against electrostatic discharges and electrical overstress). However, InGaN- and AlGaN-based devices can show a significant degradation when submitted to long-term ageing. Several driving forces can contribute to the worsening of the electrical and optical characteristics, including the operating temperature, the current, and the rate of non-radiative recombination in the quantum wells. The goal of this paper is to discuss the physics of degradation of III-V devices, by presenting a set of recent case studies, evaluated in our laboratories.
Far-UVC LEDs are interesting for applications such as skin-tolerant inactivation of multiresistant pathogens and gas sensing. We present the development of 233 nm AlGaN-based far-UVC LEDs with an emission power of 3 mW at 200 mA and L50 lifetime of more than 1000 h, after burn-in. Additionally, the design of a far-UVC LED-based irradiation system, with a spectral filter which supresses emission >240 nm, to study the inactivation of bacteria and skin compatibility of the radiation will be presented. The system can be used to homogeneously irradiate a target area of 70 mm diameter with a mean irradiance of 0.4 mW/cm².
We will give an overview of state-of-the-art results and challenges to achieve high-performing III-nitride vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs), with a particular focus on the requirements to push the emission wavelength into the ultraviolet (UV). Our method to simultaneously achieve high-reflectivity mirrors and good cavity length control by electrochemical etching enabled the world’s first UV-B VCSEL. The use of dielectric mirrors yielded lasers with a very temperature-stable emission wavelength thanks to the negative thermo-optic coefficient of the mirrors. We have used the same etch methodology to also lift-off fully processed LEDs from their growth substrate to improve the light extraction efficiency.
We will give an overview of different concepts to increase the light extraction efficiency (LEE) of ultraviolet (UV) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with a focus on thin-film flip-chip (TFFC) devices. Optical simulations show that a TFFC design can greatly improve the LEE with a transparent p-side, reflective contacts, and optimized surface roughening. We will demonstrate UVB-emitting TFFC LEDs based on our fabrication platform for AlGaN thin films with high aluminum content. The fabrication is compatible with a standard LED process and uses substrate removal based on selective electrochemical etching as the key enabling technology.
In recent years, there has been tremendous improvement in the performance of blue-emitting vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) and they are now on the cusp of commercialization. We will summarize state-of-the-art results and outline the main challenges in extending the emission wavelength into the ultraviolet (UV). Our method to simultaneously achieve high-reflectivity mirrors and good cavity length control by selective electrochemical etching has been essential to demonstrate the world’s first UV-B VCSEL. The use of dielectric mirrors, where one material has a negative thermo-optical coefficient, counteracts the inherent red-shift of the resonance wavelength, enabling a temperature-stable emission.
The market for UV LEDs is experiencing a rapid growth, also driven by the need for effective and efficient disinfection systems. Before UV LEDs can be widely accepted by the market, they need to demonstrate a high reliability, with lifetimes of several thousands of hours. Several physical processes may limit the reliability of UVB and UVC LEDs, resulting in a loss in efficiency during long term operation.
This paper aims at discussing the most relevant processes that can lead to the degradation of UVB and UVC LEDs, with focus on: (i) instability of the electrical properties, which may result in gradual changes in the turn-on voltage of the devices during long-term operation. (ii) The generation of defects within the active region of the devices, with consequent increase in the Shockley-Read-Hall non-radiative recombination rate. Optical spectroscopy is found to be very effective for the identification of deep (midgap) traps during operation of the devices. (iii) trap states near the junction, with consequent impact on trap-assisted-tunneling of the current-voltage characteristics. (iv) the propagation of point defects, especially impurities, and accumulation of charges at heterointerfaces, that can reduce the carrier injection efficiency, thus leading to a decrease in the emitted optical power.
We will give an overview of the progress in ultraviolet-emitting vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) and their potential applications in areas such as disinfection and medical therapy. This includes our demonstration of the shortest wavelength VCSEL, emitting at 310 nm under optical pumping, and a detailed analysis of its filamentary lasing characteristics. The UVB-emitting AlGaN-based VCSEL was realized by substrate removal using electrochemical etching, enabling the use of two high-reflectivity dielectric distributed Bragg reflectors. The potential of using this or alternative methods to push the emission to shorter wavelengths will be examined as well as concepts to realize electrically injected devices.
We here demonstrate thin-film flip-chip (TFFC) ultraviolet-B light-emitting diodes (LEDs) fabricated by a standard LED process and followed by a substrate removal based on selective electrochemical etching of an n-doped multilayered Al0.11Ga0.89N/Al0.37Ga0.63N sacrificial layer. The integration of the LEDs to a Si carrier using thermocompression bonding allowed roughening of the N-polar AlGaN side of the TFFC LEDs using TMAH-etching, which increased the light extraction efficiency by approximately 45% without negatively affecting the I-V-characteristics. This resulted in an optical output power of 0.47 mW at 10 mA for an LED with a p-contact area of 0.03 mm2.
Driven by applications like monitoring of combustion engines, toxic gases, nitrates in water, as well as the inactivation of multi-drug-resistant germs, the development of AlGaN-based light emitting diodes in the deep ultraviolet spectral range (DUV-LEDs) has markedly intensified. This paper will provide a review of recent advances in development of DUV-LEDs, including the realization of low defect density AlGaN heterostructures on sapphire substrates. The performance characteristics of DUV LEDs emitting in the wavelength range between 260 nm and 217 nm will be discussed and milli-Watt power LEDs near 233 nm will be demonstrated.
We investigate the spectral broadening in deep ultraviolet (UV) multi quantum well light emitting diodes (LED) by modeling the emission spectra. Experimental emission spectra of deep UV LEDs exhibit a at tail towards lower energies and a steep decrease towards high energies that cannot be explained by convolution of the spectrum with a broadening function. We devise a luminescence model based on the broadening of the density of states (DOS) function which is consistent with the experimental spectra. The broadening of the DOS also explains the emission red shift with respect to the quantum well subband transitions. In addition, we investigate the in uence of the DOS broadening on the carrier and luminescence in the active region.
Single longitudinal mode operation of laterally coupled distributed feedback (DFB) laser diodes (LDs) based on GaN containing 10th-order surface Bragg gratings with V-shaped grooves is demonstrated using i-line stepper lithography and inductively coupled plasma etching. A threshold current of 82 mA, a slope efficiency of 1.7 W/A, a single peak emission at 404.5 nm with a full width at half maximum of 0.04 nm and a side mode suppression ratio of > 23 dB at an output power of about 46 mW were achieved under pulsed operation. The shift of the lasing wavelength of DFB LDs with temperature was around three times smaller than that of conventional ridge waveguide LDs.
The aim of this work is to analyze the degradation in (In)AlGaN-based UV-B LEDs, with a nominal emission wavelength of 310 nm, submitted to constant current stress at a high current density of 350 A/cm2. We observed two main degradation mechanisms that were studied by investigating the evolution of the main emission peak from the quantum well (QW) and of a parasitic peak centered at 340 nm. In the first 50 hours of stress the main peak decreases and the parasitic peak (probably related to radiative recombination in the quantum barrier next to the electron blocking layer) increases at drive currents between 5 mA and 50 mA. Secondly, after 50 hours of stress both the main and the parasitic peak decrease. The first degradation mode could be related to carrier escape from the QWs, since the increase in the parasitic peak is correlated with the decrease in the main peak. After 50 hours of stress, we observed that the current below the turn-on voltage at V = 2 V increases with a square-root of time dependence. This behavior indicates the presence of a diffusion process, probably by point defects causing an increase of non-radiative recombination in the LED.
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) in the UVB (280 nm – 315 nm) spectral range are of particular interest for applications such as plant growth lighting or phototherapy. In fact, LEDs offer numerous advantages compared to conventional ultraviolet light sources such as a tunable emission wavelength, a small form factor, and a minimal environmental impact. State-of-the-art devices utilize p-GaN and low aluminum mole fraction p-AlGaN layers to enable good ohmic contacts and low series resistances. However, these layers are also not transparent to UVB light thus limiting the light extraction efficiency (LEE). The exploitation of UV-transparent p-AlGaN layers together with high reflective metal contacts may significantly increase the LEE. In this paper, the output power of LEDs emitting at 310 nm with a UV-transparent and absorbing Mg-doped AlGaN superlattice is compared. A three-fold increase of the output power was observed for LEDs with UV-transparent p-AlGaN layers. To investigate these findings, LEDs with low reflective Ni/Au and high reflective Al contacts are fabricated and characterized. Together with ray tracing simulations and detailed measurements of the metal reflectivities, we were able to determine the LEE and the internal quantum efficiency (IQE). According to on-wafer measurements, the external quantum efficiency (EQE) increases from 0.3% for an absorbing p-Al0.2Ga0.8N/Al0.4Ga0.6N-superlattice with Ni/Au contacts to 0.9% for a UV-transparent p-Al0.4Ga0.6N/Al0.6Ga0.4N-superlattice with Al contacts. This 3× enhancement of the EQE can be partially ascribed to an improved LEE (from 4.5% to 7.5%) in combination with a 1.8× increase of the IQE when using a p-Al0.4Ga0.6N/Al0.6Ga0.4N-superlattice instead of a p-Al0.2Ga0.8N/Al0.4Ga0.6N-superlattice.
The paper reports the analysis of (In)AlGaN-based UV-B LEDs degradation under constant current stress, and investigates the impact of defects in changing the devices electro-optical performance. The study is based on combined electro-optical characterization, deep-level transient- (DLTS) and photocurrent spectroscopy. UV-B LEDs show a decrease of the optical power during stress, more pronounced at low measuring current levels, indicating that the degradation is related to an increase of Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination. DLTS measurements allowed the identification of three defects, in particular one ascribed to Mg-related acceptor traps presence. Photocurrent spectroscopy allows the localization of the defects close to the mid-gap.
In this paper we report on the influence of the heterostructure design of (InAlGa)N-based UV-B LEDs grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy on sapphire substrates on the degradation behavior of the device. Two types of LEDs with different heterostructure design, resulting in peak-wavelengths of about 290 nm and 310 nm, respectively, were stressed at a constant operation current of 100 mA and a heat sink temperature of 20°C. Electro-optical characterization of the LEDs over 1.000 h of operation shows two different degradation modes with respect to the change of the emission spectrum and leakage current. The first mode during the initial hours (290 nm LED: 0 h - 500 h, 310 nm LED: 0 h – 100 h) of operation is represented by a fast reduction of the quantum well (QW) luminescence, a constant or increasing parasitic luminescence between 310 nm and 450 nm and a fast increase of the reverse- and forward-bias leakage current. These changes are more pronounced (higher degradation rate) in the 290 nm LEDs and can therefore be attributed to the different heterostructure design. In contrast, the second degradation mode at longer operation times (290 nm LED: >500 h, 310 nm LED: >100 h) is marked by a slow reduction of both the QW and the parasitic luminescence, as well as a slow increase of the leakage current which are similar for both types of LEDs. Furthermore, the second mode is marked by a square-root time dependence of the QW luminescence intensity, indicating a diffusion process to be involved.
We present UV-C LEDs emitting around 235 nm grown by MOVPE on ELO AlN/sapphire substrates. In order to account for the low conductivity of high Al content AlGaN layers and the associated high contact resistances, we designed an optimized compact LED geometry based on electro-thermal simulations of the current spreading. Experimental data (layer and contact resistances) are collected on test structures and used as input parameters for 3-D current spreading simulations. With resistances of the layers (n and p) approaching 0.1 Ωcm, the use of a segmented p-area with broad n-contact fingers (10 μm or more) that are close to the mesa edge (5 μm) help to maximize the emission power in the center of the structure. Based on this knowledge a series of compact LEDs of size 500 μm x 500 μm is designed and simulated. We get confirmation that the segmentation of the p-area is the most critical parameter to limit the non-uniformity introduced by the high n-sheet resistances. Up to 17% in emission power can be gained when the n-contacts are designed properly. LEDs with the optimum geometry were processed and measured. We get a good confirmation of our model concerning the distribution of the emission power. Both simulations and measurements show current crowding at the edge of the n-contact, however the power loss in the middle of the chip is higher than predicted.
UV light emitters in the UV-B spectral range between 280 nm and 320 nm are of great interest for applications such as phototherapy, gas sensing, plant growth lighting, and UV curing. In this paper we present high power UV-B LEDs grown by MOVPE on sapphire substrates. By optimizing the heterostructure design, growth parameters and processing technologies, significant progress was achieved with respect to internal efficiency, injection efficiency and light extraction. LED chips emitting at 310 nm with maximum output powers of up to 18 mW have been realized. Lifetime measurements show approximately 20% decrease in emission power after 1,000 operating hours at 100 mA and 5 mW output power and less than 30% after 3,500 hours of operation, thus indicating an L50 lifetime beyond 10,000 hours.
Optical polarization properties of nonpolar quantum wells and their efficiency droop at high charge
carrier densities are discussed. Therefore, a photoluminescence experiment connecting both characteristics
is presented. The additional property of polarization resolution provides information
about the two lowest interband transitions and the occupation of holes in the two highest valence
subbands. The ratio of occupation in the two subbands is a direct projection of the Fermi-Dirac
statistics. Because of the carrier dependency of the Auger losses, the quantum well internal efficiency
drops in the high charge carrier regime. Here, we observe that the peak of the internal
quantum efficiency of the individual subband occurs at different excitation densities as a direct
consequence of the Fermi-Dirac statistics.
The resonator orientation of InGaN-based lasers on semipolar planes influences the optical polarization and the
gain. We present gain measurements of semipolar (11-22) laser structures with differently oriented resonators and
for various polarization states. The optical polarization state and the thresholds for lasers on different semipolar
and nonpolar orientations are compared. The experimental results are accompanied by numerical calculations of
the material gain as well as investigation of the surface morphology and resulting waveguide losses in dependence
of the crystal orientation.
The availability of GaN substrates is crucial for GaN-based laser diodes. Also high performance LEDs ask for high
quality substrates. Methods for growth of bulk GaN are reviewed with a focus on hydride vapour phase epitaxy (HVPE),
which currently is the method used for the production of GaN substrates. Also the ammonothermal approach is briefly
discussed. Both approaches still have to overcome limitations before mass-production at affordable prices is feasible.
These limitations are related to the maximum growth rate yielding high quality material as well as the boule length that
can be achieved together with high material quality.
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