NASA’s Laser Communication Relay Demonstration (LCRD) aims to demonstrate a geosynchronous satellite laser
communications (lasercom) relay between two independent ground terminals. We report on the design of two
adaptive optics (AO) techniques for LCRD Ground Station #2 (GS-2). GS-2 leverages the ground terminal
developed for NASA’s Lunar Laser Communications Demonstration (LLCD). Equipping GS-2’s 40cm diameter
receive telescope with AO to mitigate atmospheric turbulence effects will enable the use of single mode, optically
preamplified receivers for high data-rate near-Earth relay applications. In this work a direct wavefront sensing AO
approach using a Shack-Hartmann sensor and a continuous facesheet micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS)
deformable mirror (DM) was compared with an indirect sensing, hill-climbing or multidither approach using a
segmented MEMS DM. Design concepts and recent experimental progress for the two approaches are presented.
We report on the development of sub-millimeter size adaptive liquid microlenses and microlens arrays using two immiscible liquids to form individual lenses. Microlenses and microlens arrays having aperture diameters as small as 50 microns were fabricated on a planar quartz substrate using patterned hydrophobic/hydrophilic regions. Liquid lenses were formed by a self-assembled oil dosing process that created well-defined lenses having a high fill factor. Variable focus was achieved by controlling the lens curvature through electrowetting. Greater than 70° of contact angle change was achieved with less than 20 volts, which results in a large optical power dynamic range.
In this paper we present an alignment methodology for a non-linear laser scanning fluorescence microscopic imaging
system integrated with a MEMS deformable mirror that is used to compensate microscope aberrations and improve
sample image quality. The procedure uses an accurate open-loop control mechanism of the MEMS DM, a high
resolution CMOS camera and a compact Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor. The success of the indirect AO control
method used by the microscope to compensate aberrations requires careful alignment of the optical system, specifically
the DM conjugate planes in the scanning laser optical path. Considerations of this procedure are presented here, in
addition to an assessment of the final accuracy of the alignment task is presented, by verifying the pupil conjugation and
wavefront response. This method can also serve as a regular check-up of the system's performance and trouble-shoot for
system misalignment.
We present a new multiplexed high-voltage driver architecture that departs from previous MEMS deformable-mirror
drivers. Just one D/A converter and one high-voltage amplifier module drive the entire actuator array through a row-column
addressing scheme. This approach reduces operational power consumption of a multiple-channel deformable-mirror
driver by two orders of magnitude. It can provide for the integration of the deformable mirror and driver into a
compact package, reducing driver volume by an order of magnitude. Both of these system modifications are essential for
the implementation of MEMS deformable mirrors into space-based adaptive optics systems and other applications.
A prototype optical system for compact, high-speed zooming is described. The system is enabled by a pair of
MEMS deformable mirrors (DMs), and is capable of high-speed optical zoom without translation of components. We
describe experiments conducted with the zoom system integrated with an optical microscope, demonstrating 2.5× zoom
capability. Zoom is achieved by simultaneously adjusting focal lengths of the two DMs, which are inserted between an
infinity-corrected microscope objective and a tube lens. In addition to zoom, the test system is demonstrated to be
capable of automated fine focus control and adaptive aberration compensation. Image quality is measured using contrast
modulation, and performance of the system is quantified.
We report on the development of high actuator count,
micro-electromechanical (MEMS) deformable mirrors designed
for high order wavefront correction in ground and space-based astronomical adaptive optics instruments. The design of
these polysilicon, surface-micromachined MEMS deformable mirrors builds on technology that has been used
extensively to correct for ocular aberrations in retinal imaging systems and for compensation of atmospheric turbulence
in free-space laser communication. These light-weight, low power deformable mirrors have an active aperture of up to
25.2mm consisting of a thin silicon membrane mirror supported by an array of 140 to 4092 electrostatic actuators which
exhibit no hysteresis and have sub-nanometer repeatability making them well suited for open-loop control applications
such as Multi-Object Adaptive Optics (MOAO). The continuous membrane deformable mirrors, coated with a highly
reflective metal film, are capable of up to 6μm of stroke, have a surface finish of <10nm RMS with a fill factor of 99.8%.
Presented in this paper are device characteristics and performance test results, as well as reliability test data and device
lifetime predictions that show that trillions of actuator cycles can be achieved without failures.
The development of an assembly and packaging process for MEMS deformable mirrors (DMs) with
through wafer via (TWV) interconnects is presented. The approach consists of attaching a DM die with
high-density TWV electrostatic actuator interconnects to an interposer substrate that fans out these
connections for interfacing to conventional packaging technology.
Improvements for open-loop control of MEMS deformable mirror for large-amplitude
wavefront control are presented. The improvements presented here relate to measurement
filtering, characterization methods, and controlling the true, non-differential shape of the
mirror. These improvements have led to increased accuracy over a wider variety of
deflection profiles including flattening the mirror and Zernike polynomials.
We report on the design, development and testing of a new low-power, light-weight and low-cost modulating
retroreflector system for free-space covert optical communication and remote sensor interrogation. The central
component of the system is a MEMS modulator mirror, which is physically similar to a very low modulation reflective
diffraction grating that has actively controlled groove depth and can operate at frequencies up to 1MHz. One facet of the
hollow corner cube retroreflector consists of the MEMS mirror, providing intensity modulation of a reflected
interrogating beam by switching from an unpowered flat mirror state to a powered diffractive state. The system is
optimized for performance at 1550nm and has a field of view of 60 degrees. For covert operation it uses "wake-up"
circuitry to control a low-power shutter that remains closed between data transfers. The system's compact driver
electronics employs power scavenging and resonant properties for minimal power consumption and extended
autonomous operational life. Interrogation field test results for the modulating retroreflector will be presented.
An optical communication system suitable for voice communication, data retrieval from remote sensors and
identification had been designed, built and tested. The system design allows operation at ranges of several hundred
meters. The heart of the system is a modulated MEMS mirror that is electrostatically actuated and changes between a flat
reflective state and a corrugated diffractive state. A process for mass producing these mirrors at low cost was developed
and implemented. The mirror was incorporated as a facet in a hollow retro-reflector, allowing temporal modulation of an
interrogating beam and the return of the modulated beam to the interrogator. This modulator unit thus consists of a low
power, small and light communication node with large (about 60°) angular extent. The system's range and pointing are
determined by the interrogator /detector / demodulator unit (the transceiver), whereas the communicating node remains
small, low power and low cost. This transceiver is comprised of a magnified optical channel to establish line of sight
communication, an interrogating laser at 1550nm, an avalanche photo diode to detect the return signal and electronics to
drive the laser and demodulate the returned signal and convert it to an audio signal. Voice communication in free space
was demonstrated at ranges larger than 200 meters. A new retro-reflector design, incorporating more modulated mirrors
had been constructed. This configuration was built and tested. Its performance and advantages as compared to the single
mirror retro-reflector are discussed. An alternative system design that allows higher bandwidth data transmission is
described
An optical communication system suitable for voice, data retrieval from remote sensors and identification is described.
The system design allows operation at ranges of several hundred meters. The heart of the system is a modulated MEMS
mirror that is electrostatically actuated and changes between a flat reflective state and a corrugated diffractive state. A
process for mass producing these mirrors at low cost was developed and is described. The mirror was incorporated as a
facet in a hollow retro-reflector, allowing temporal modulation of an interrogating beam and the return of the modulated
beam to the interrogator. This system thus consists of a low power, small and light communication node with large
(about 60°) angular extent. The system's range and pointing are determined by the interrogator /detector/demodulator
(Transceiver) unit. The transceiver is comprised of an optical channel to establish line of sight communication, an
interrogating laser at 1550nm, an avalanche photo diode to detect the return signal and electronics to drive the laser and
demodulate the detected signal and convert it to an audio signal. A functional prototype system was built using a
modified compact optical sight as the transceiver. Voice communication in free space was demonstrated. The design and
test of major components and the complete system are discussed.
We report progress on a nulling coronagraph intended for direct imaging of extrasolar planets. White light is suppressed
in an interferometer, and phase errors are measured by a second interferometer. A 1020-pixel MEMS deformable mirror
in the first interferometer adjusts the path length across the pupil. A feedback control system reduces deflections of the
deformable mirror to order of 1 nm rms.
We report on the development of a new class of electrostatic MEMS deformable mirror (DM) fabricated through a
combination of bulk micromachining, wafer bonding, and surface micromachining. The combination of these
fabrication technologies introduces four major improvements over previous MEMS DMs, which are fabricated using
surface micromachining alone. First, the MEMS DM structural components (mirror surface and actuator array) are
made entirely of single crystalline silicon by use of the device layer of a whole 4-inch silicon-on-insulator (SOI)
wafer bonded together via anodic bonding. Unlike current MEMS DMs fabricated entirely using surface
micromachining, bulk micromachining steps in this fabrication process require no etch access holes, print through is
inexistent, and no polishing steps are required. This leads to reduced diffraction of light from the mirror surface,
improved mirror surface optical quality, and elimination of manufacturing processing steps. Second, through-wafer
interconnects are used to connect the densely-packed electrostatic actuator array to driver electronics. This
eliminates the need for wirebonding at the periphery of the DM, increasing the surface area available for actuators
and removes the need for bulky wire bundles to connect the device to its driver. Third, by using the full area of a
silicon wafer for each mirror, these MEMS DMs offer a larger optical aperture than any previously-reported MEMS
DM. The larger aperture will achieve higher angular resolution, providing larger wavefront correction. Finally, the
mirror and actuator thicknesses are not limited to several micrometers, unlike in surface micromachining. The
thickness limits using this fabrication process is prescribed by the device layer thickness in SOI wafers, which vary
between several micrometers to several hundred of microns.
A new method is introduced for predicting control voltages that will generate a prescribed
surface shape on a deformable mirror. The algorithm is based upon an analytical elastic
model of the mirror membrane and an empirical electromechanical model of its actuators. It
is computationally simple and inherently fast. Shapes at the limit of achievable mirror spatial
frequencies with up to 1.5μm amplitudes have been achieved with less than 15nm RMS error.
We describe the advantages of a nulling coronagraph instrument behind a single aperture space telescope for detection and spectroscopy of Earth-like extrasolar planets in visible light. Our concept synthesizes a nulling interferometer by shearing the telescope pupil into multiple beams. They are recombined with a pseudo-achromatic pi-phase shift in one arm to produce a deep null on-axis, attenuating the starlight, while simultaneously transmitting the off-axis planet light. Our nulling configuration includes methods to mitigate stellar leakage, such as spatial filtering by a coherent array of single mode fibers, balancing amplitude and phase with a segmented deformable mirror, and post-starlight suppression wavefront sensing and control. With diffraction limited telescope optics and similar quality components in the optical train (λ/20), suppression of the starlight to 10-10 is readily achievable. We describe key features of the architecture and analysis, present the status of key experiments to demonstrate wide bandwidth null depth, and present the status of component technology development.
We report on the development of a new MEMS deformable mirror (DM) system for the hyper-contrast visible nulling coronagraph architecture designed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finding (TPF) mission. The new DM is based largely upon existing lightweight, low power MEMS DM technology at Boston University (BU), tailored to the rigorous optical and mechanical requirements of the nulling coronagraph. It consists of 329-hexagonal segments on a 600μm pitch, each with tip/tilt and piston degrees of freedom. The mirror segments have 1μm of stroke, a tip/tilt range of 600 arc-seconds, and maintain their figure to within 2nm RMS under actuation. The polished polycrystalline silicon mirror segments have a surface roughness of 5nm RMS and an average curvature of 270mm. Designing a mirror segment that maintains its figure during actuation was a very significant challenge faced during DM development. Two design concepts were pursued in parallel to address this challenge. The first design uses a thick, epitaxial grown polysilicon mirror layer to add rigidity to the mirror segment. The second design reduces mirror surface bending by decoupling actuator diaphragm motion from the mirror surface motion. This is done using flexure cuts around the mirror post in the actuator diaphragm. Both DM architectures and their polysilicon microfabrication process are presented. Recent optical and electromechanical characterization results will also be discussed, in addition to plans for further improvement of DM figure to satisfy nulling coronagraph optical requirements.
Over the past decade, a number of electrostatically-actuated MEMS deformable mirror devices have been used for adaptive control in beam-forming and imaging applications. One architecture that has been widely used is the silicon device developed by Boston University, consisting of a continuous or segmented mirror supported by post attachments to an array of parallel plate electrostatic actuators. MEMS deformable mirrors and segmented mirrors with up to 1024 of these actuators have been used in open loop and closed loop control systems to control wavefront errors. Frame rates as high as 11kHz have been demonstrated.
Mechanically, the actuators used in this device exhibit a first-mode resonant frequency that is in the range of many tens of kilohertz up to a few hundred kilohertz. Viscous air damping has been found to limit operation at such high frequencies in air at standard pressure. Some applications in high-speed tracking and beam-forming could benefit from increased speed.
In this paper, several approaches to achieving critically-damped performance with such MEMS DMs are detailed, and theoretical and experimental results are presented. One approach is to seal the MEMS DM in a full or partial vacuum environment, thereby affecting air damping. After vacuum sealing the device's predicted resonant behavior at tens of kilohertz was observed. In vacuum, the actuator's intrinsic material damping is quite small, resulting in considerable oscillation in step response. To alleviate this problem, a two-step actuation algorithm was employed. Precise control of a single actuator frequencies up to 100kHz without overshoot was demonstrated using this approach. Another approach to increasing actuation speed was to design actuators that reduce air damping effects. This is also demonstrated in the paper.
The World Wide Web (WWW) is becoming increasingly important for business, education, and entertainment. Popular web browsers make access to Internet information resources relatively easy for novice users. Simply by clicking on a link, a new page of information replaces the current one on the screen. Unfortunately however, after following a number of links, people can have difficulty remembering where they've been and navigating links they have followed. As one's collection of web pages grows and as more information of interest populates the web, effective navigation becomes an issue of fundamental importance. We are developing a prototype zooming browser to explore alternative mechanisms for navigating the WWW. Instead of having a single page visible at a time, multiple pages and the links between them are depicted on a large zoomable information surface. Pages are scaled so that the page in focus is clearly readable with connected pages shown at smaller scales to provide context. As a link is followed the new page becomes the focus and existing pages are dynamically repositioned and scaled. Layout changes are animated so that the focus page moves smoothly to the center of the display surface while contextual information provided by linked pages scales down. While our browser supports multiscale representations of existing HTML pages, we have also extended HTML to support multiscale layout within a page. This extension, Multi-Scale Markup Language, is at an early stage of development. It currently supports inclusion within a page of variable-sized dynamic objects, graphics, and other interface mechanisms from our underlying Pad++ substrate. This provides sophisticated client- side interactions, permits annotations to be added to pages, and allows page constituents to be used as independent graphical objects. In this paper, we describe our prototype web browser and authoring facilities. We show how simple extensions to HTML can support sophisticated client-side interactions. Finally, we discuss the results of preliminary user-interface testing and evaluation.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.