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There have been no significant breakthroughs in infrared imagery since the hybridization of III-V or II-VI narrow-bandgap semiconductors on complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) read-out integrated circuits (ROICs). The development of third-generation, linear-mode avalanche photodiode arrays (LmAPDs) using mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) has resulted in a significant sensitivity improvement for short-wave infrared (SWIR) imaging. The first dedicated LmAPD device, called SAPHIRA (320x256/24μm), was designed by Leonardo UK Ltd specifically for SWIR astronomical applications requiring speed and sensitivity. In the past decade there has been a significant development effort to make larger LmAPD arrays for low-background astronomy and advance adaptive optics.
Larger LmAPD formats for ultra-low noise/flux SWIR imaging, currently under development at Leonardo include a 512 x 512 LmAPD array funded by ESO, MPE and NRC Herzberg, a 1k x 1k array funded by NASA and a 2K x 2K device funded by ESA for general scientific imaging applications. The 2048x2048 pixel ROIC has a pitch of 15 microns, 4/8/16 outputs and a maximum frame rate of 10 Hz.
The ROIC characterization is scheduled in the third quarter of 2022, while the first arrays will be fabricated by end-2022. The hybridized arrays will be characterized during end-2022. At this time, First Light Imaging will start the development of an autonomous camera integrating this 2Kx2K LmAPD array, based on the unique experience from the C-RED One camera, the only commercial camera integrating the SAPHIRA SWIR LmAPD array. The main features of this camera is presented. The detector will be embedded in a compact high vacuum cryostat cooled with low vibration pulse at 50-80K which does not require external pumping. If necessary, an active vibration damping system can be added for reducing the array vibrations down to 0.01 micron. Sub-electron readout noise is expected to be achieved with high multiplication gain. Custom cold filters and beam aperture cold baffling will be integrated in the camera.
The large format 2Kx2K ROIC for APD array is funded by ESA under a TDE program with the contract number 000130154/20/NL/AR.
First Light Imaging’s C-RED One infrared camera is capable of capturing up to 3500 full frames per second with a subelectron readout noise and very low background. C-RED One is based on the last version of the SAPHIRA detector developed by Leonardo UK. This breakthrough has been made possible thanks to the use of an e-APD infrared focal plane array which is a real disruptive technology in imagery. C-RED One is an autonomous system with an integrated cooling system and a vacuum regeneration system. It operates its sensor with a wide variety of read out techniques and processes video on-board thanks to an FPGA. We will show its performances and expose its main features.
In addition to this project, First Light Imaging developed an InGaAs 640x512 fast camera with unprecedented performances in terms of noise, dark and readout speed based on the SNAKE SWIR detector from Sofradir. The camera was called C-RED 2. The C-RED 2 characteristics and performances will be described.
The C-RED One project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement N° 673944. The C-RED 2 development is supported by the "Investments for the future" program and the Provence Alpes Côte d'Azur Region, in the frame of the CPER.
In this communication we report the performances of a SWIR APD FPA designed and fabricated by CEA LETI and SOFRADIR for astrophysical applications. This development was made in the frame of RAPID, a 4 years R&D project funded by the French FUI (Fond Unique Interministériel). This project involves industrial and academic partners from the field of advanced infrared focal plane arrays fabrication (SOFRADIR and CEA LETI) and of astronomical/defense institutes (IPAG, LAM, ONERA). The goal of this program is to develop a fast and low noise SWIR camera for astronomical fast applications like adaptive optics wavefront sensing and fringe tracking for astronomical interferometers [3].
The first batch of FPA’s was based on liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE) grown photodiode arrays with 3 μm cut off wavelength. In order to get higher avalanche gain for a given photodiode reverse bias voltage, we have made a second batch with a cadmium composition leading to 3.3 μm cut off wavelength (λc). This paper described the read out circuit in the next section. The aim section III is to find the critical parameter that has to be measured to evaluate the signal to noise ratio (SNR) of an APD FPA. The main electro optical characteristics of an FPA based on 3.3μm cut off wavelength APDs are reported in “Rapid FPAs characterisation” section. The dark current evolution with temperature of a 3 μm FPA high and low APD bias is also detailed in this section.
First Light Imaging C-RED One infrared camera is capable of capturing up to 3500 full frames per second with subelectron readout noise and very low background. C-RED One is based on the last version of the SAPHIRA detector developed by Leonardo UK. This breakthrough has been made possible thanks to the use of an e-APD infrared focal plane array which is a real disruptive technology in imagery. C-RED One is an autonomous system with an integrated cooling system and a vacuum regeneration system. It operates its sensor with a wide variety of read out techniques and processes video on-board thanks to a Xlinks embedded FPGA.
In addition to this project, First Light Imaging developed an InGaAs 640x512 fast camera with unprecedented performances in terms of noise, dark and readout speed for equivalent products. This camera is based on the SNAKE SWIR detector from Sofradir and was called C-RED 2. The C-RED 2 characteristics and performances are also fully described in this paper.
The C-RED One project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement N° 673944. C-RED2 development is supported by the "Investments for the future" program and the Provence Alpes Côte d'Azur Region, in the frame of the CPER.
Two generations of the CMOS Imager are planned: a) a smaller ‘pioneering’ device of ⪆ 800x800 pixels capable of meeting first light needs of the E-ELT. The NGSD, the topic of this paper, is the first iteration of this device; b) the larger full sized device called LGSD. The NGSD has come out of production, it has been thinned to 12μm, backside processed and packaged in a custom 370pin Ceramic PGA (Pin Grid Array). Results of comprehensive tests performed both at e2v and ESO are presented that validate the choice of CMOS Imager as the correct technology for the E-ELT Large Visible WFS Detector. These results along with plans for a second iteration to improve two issues of hot pixels and cross-talk are presented.
We present in the following the MICADO-MAORY SCAO specifications, the current SCAO prototyping activities at LESIA for E-ELT scale pyramid wavefront sensor (WFS) and real-time computer (RTC), our activities on end-to-end AO simulations and the current preliminary design of SCAO subsystems. We finish by presenting the implementation and current design studies for the high-contrast imaging mode of MICADO, which will make use of the SCAO correction offered to the instrument.
NEAT is an astrometric mission proposed to ESA with the objectives of detecting Earth-like exoplanets in the habitable zone of nearby solar-type stars. In NEAT, one fundamental aspect is the capability to measure stellar centroids at the precision of 5 × 10-6 pixel.
Current state-of-the-art methods for centroid estimation have reached a precision of about 2 × 10-5 pixel at two times Nyquist sampling, this was shown at the JPL by the VESTA experiment.1 A metrology system was used to calibrate intra and inter pixel quantum efficiency variations in order to correct pixelation errors.
The European part of the NEAT consortium is building a testbed in vacuum in order to achieve 5 × 10-6 pixel precision for the centroid estimation. The goal is to provide a proof of concept for the precision requirement of the NEAT spacecraft. In this paper we present the metrology and the pseudo stellar sources sub-systems, we present a performance model and an error budget of the experiment and finally we describe the present status of the demonstration.
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